<p>Washington Square West is a neighborhood in downtown, or Center City, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The neighborhood roughly corresponds to the area between 7th and Broad Streets and between Chestnut and South Streets, bordering on the Independence Mall tourist area directly northeast, Market East to the northwest, Old City and Society Hill to the East, Bella Vista directly south, Hawthorne to the southwest, and mid-town Philadelphia and Rittenhouse Square to the west. In addition to being a desirable residential community, it is considered a hip, trendy neighborhood that offers a diverse array of shops, restaurants, and coffee houses. Washington Square West contains many gay-friendly establishments and hosts annual events celebrating LGBT culture in Philadelphia including OutFest. The area takes its name from Washington Square, a historic urban park in the northeastern corner of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Philadelphias Antique Row lies in the area as does the nations oldest hospital, Pennsylvania Hospital. Educational and medical facilities associated with Thomas Jefferson University, a leading regional medical university and health care center, are located within the neighborhood. The one-time headquarters of the former Curtis Publishing Company and the University of the Arts lie at the edges of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Washington Wests real estate is mixed commercial, residential and service industries, characterized by two, three, and four-story rowhouses interspersed with condominiums, mid-rise apartments, hospitals and offices with ground-floor retail. The neighborhood follows William Penns original grid layout for the city, with many one-lane and pedestrian side streets added later as the population became more dense. In addition to the block sized Washington Square Park to the East, the neighborhood contains the smaller Kahn Park, named after the Philadelphia architect Louis Kahn who resided in the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name "Washington Square West" came into official use in the late 1950s and early 1960s as part of Edmund Bacons comprehensive plan for Center City. In this plan, the south-east quadrant of center city was split into Washington Square East (more commonly known as Society Hill) and Washington Square West. Both neighborhoods were scheduled for urban renewal by Philadelphias City Planning Commission and Redevelopment Authority. After a period of decline in the early 20th century, city officials hoped that redevelopment would clean up the neighborhood and clear blighted areas.</p><br>
<p>After large-scale renewal of Washington Square East/Society Hill in the early 1960s, the Philadelphia Redevelopment Authority turned to Washington Square West. In the late 1960s, the Redevelopment Authority bought and demolished buildings and, by the mid-1970s, owned one-fifth of the neighborhood. By this time, however, federal money available for urban renewal had declined and the city was no longer able to fund the renewal of Washington Square West. Buildings razed by the city in the 1960s and 1970s were left as empty lots and the neighborhood was left in a state of decline.</p><br>
<p>Through the late 1970s and 1980 began a slow recovery without the aid of the large-scale redevelopment that had occurred in Society Hill. The 1990s saw a shift in the neighborhood as Mayor Ed Rendell encouraged investment in Center City and gentrification began to take hold. By the end of the 1990s and early 2000s, the neighborhood had transformed into an economically vital community.</p><br>
<p>The Washington Square West Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. The 61 acre area encompasses 450 contributing buildings. Located in the district and separately listed are the Clinton Street Historic District, Roberts-Quay House, and Portico Row.</p><br>
<h2>The Gayborhood</h2><br>
<p>The area approximately located around Chestnut, Pine, Juniper and 11th Streets within Washington Square West is known as The Gayborhood. It is so-named because of its large concentration of gay and lesbian friendly small businesses, services, restaurants, and gay bars. It was also a red light district and center of Philadelphias gay bathhouse culture in the 1970s and 1980s. The area is the location for Philadelphias annual OutFest: National Coming Out Day celebration. On 18 April 2007, the city of Philadelphia officially recognized the area by adding 36 gay pride rainbow flag symbols to street signs bordering the Gayborhood area. 32 additional signs were added in June 2010. On 25 June 2015, rainbows, indicating LGBT pride, were painted onto crosswalks on the corner of 13th and Locust Streets.</p><br>
<p>Its success as a city neighborhood has led to several attempts at large scale private development in the Gayborhood in the 2000s. In 2002, developer Tony Goldman attempted to change 13th Street and its surroundings into the "Blocks Below Broad" or "B3", with the launch of several new retail establishments. The attempt failed, but was repeated in 2006 by a merchants association organized by James McManaman. The organization has attempted to re-brand the neighborhood as "Midtown Village." The association has been successful in launching several new retail establishments along 13th Street, but the name Midtown Village has been met with ambivalence by locals. An effort to change the name to MidVil is underway.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Louis Kahn (1901–1974), architect</p><br>
<p>Christopher Morley (1890–1957), author</p><br>
<p>M. Night Shyamalan (b. 1970), director</p><br>
<p>William Still (1819–1902), abolitionist</p><br>
<p>Gytheio , the ancient Gythium or Gytheion , is a town and a former municipality in Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality East Mani, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 197.313 km. It was the seaport of Sparta, some 40 km north. Gytheio used to be an important port until it was destroyed in 4th century AD, possibly by an earthquake. Today it is the largest and most important town in Mani. It is also the seat of the municipality of East Mani.</p><br>
<h2>Nearest Places</h2><br>
<p>South: Mavrovouni</p><br>
<p>West: Rachi</p><br>
<p>North: Stefania</p><br>
<p>East: Cranae</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Gytheio is located in the northeastern corner of Mani and lies on the northwestern end of the Laconian Gulf. Gytheio was built on a hill called Koumaros or Laryssio in one of the most fertile areas in Mani, near the mouth of the Gythium River, which is usually dry and has been nicknamed Xerias "dry river&quot today, most of the Xerias is covered by Ermou Avenue. Further northeast is the delta of the Evrotas River. Offshore are several small islands; the most important of these islands is Cranae, which is connected to the mainland by a causeway. Gytheio is only 40 km southeast of Sparti, connected by Greek National Road 39. The town center is situated around the port. Pine trees are situated in the west and rocky mountains in the north.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The reputed founders of ancient Gythium were Heracles and Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins or in other legends, and Castor and Pollux: the former of these names may point to the influence of Phoenician traders from Tyre, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very early period. It is thought that Gytheio may have been the center of their purple dye trade because the Laconian Gulf had a plentiful source of murex. In classical times it was a community of Perioeci, politically dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own.</p><br>
<p>In 455 BC, during the First Peloponnesian War, it was burned by the Athenian admiral Tolmides who besieged the city with 50 ships and 4,000 hoplites. It was rebuilt and was most probably, the building ground for the Spartan fleet in the Peloponnesian War. In 407 BC during the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades landed there and saw the thirty triremes the Spartans were building there. In 370 BC, the Thebans under the command of Epaminondas besieged the city successfully for three days after ravaging Laconia. However it was recaptured by the Spartans three days later.</p><br>
<p>In 219 BC, Philip V of Macedon tried to capture the city but without success. Nabis recaptured Gythium three years and the Spartan fleet defeated the Achean fleet outside of Gythium. Gythium was liberated by a Roman fleet under the command of Aulus Atilius Serranus.</p><br>
<p>Subsequently, Gythium formed the most important of the Union of Free Laconians, a group of twenty-four, later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their autonomy against Sparta and declared free by Caesar Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy was the general, who was assisted by a treasurer (rauias), while the chief magistrates of the several communities bore the title of ephors.</p><br>
<p>In Roman times Gythium remained a major port and it prospered as a member of the Union. As purple dye was popular in Rome, Gythium exported that as well as porphyry and rose antique marble. Evidence of the ancient Gythium prosperity can be found by the fact that the Romans built an ancient theatre which is well preserved today and is still used occasionally. The ancient theatre, as well as the city&#39;s Acropolis (west to the location of the theatre) discovered by the archeologist Dimitris Skias on 1891. Some time in the 4th century AD, Gythium was destroyed. What happened to Gythium is not recorded but it is thought to have been either sacked by Alaric and Visigoths, pillaged by the Slavs or destroyed by the massive earthquake that struck the area in 375 AD.</p><br>
<p>After the earthquake Gythium was abandoned. It remained a small village throughout the Byzantine and Ottoman times. Its importance grew when Tzannetos Grigorakis built his tower at Cranae and more people came and settled at Gytheio.</p><br>
<p>The modern Gytheio opened a port in the 1960s. Ferries sail from Gytheio to Kythira almost daily and also to Crete twice a week. It is the See of the Diocese of Gytheion and Oitylo, headed by a Metropolitan bishop of the Orthodox Church of Greece. Gytheio is the largest and most important town in Mani. Most of the ruins of ancient Gythium are now submerged in the Laconian Gulf.</p><br>
<p>Some walls&#39; remains can be seen today on the sandy beach of Valtaki and in the shallow waters, where the well known Dimitrios shipwreck lies stranded. It is also the capital of the municipality of Gytheio.</p><br>
<h2>Province</h2><br>
<p>The province of Gytheio (Επαρχία Γυθείου) was one of the provinces of the Laconia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipal units Gytheio and East Mani. It was abolished in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Persons</h2><br>
<p>Alexandros Othonaios (1879–1970), general and former Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Tzannis Tzannetakis (1927–2010), politician and former Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Deane Jordan aka "Green Deane" of "Eat The Weeds" is a Greek American and the most watched wild food forager in the world. His grandparents are from the Gythio area, the Tsapatsaris family in Karea and Karantzalis from Konahia.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Gytheio is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, France</p><br>
<p>The River Pool is a tributary of the River Ravensbourne. It is 5.1 km  in length, and rises  between Shirley and West Wickham in the London Borough of Croydon. It then flows northwards through Beckenham  and Sydenham in the London Borough of Lewisham, to join the Ravensbourne in Catford. Two of its tributaries are the River Beck and the Chaffinch Brook.</p><br>
<p>For much of its length the river lies in a floodplain. Land on either side is given up to sports grounds and a flood watch is kept continually on it.</p><br>
<p>In New Beckenham, the River Pool Walkway, running north from Lennard Road near the Midland Bank Sports Ground and Cator Park, includes a conservation site and naturalised areas; the route is part of the National Cycle Network. At Sydenham, the section of the river that ran in a culvert under the gas works has been recently opened up, and landscaped.</p><br>
<p>In June 2009, London Mayor Boris Johnson fell into the River Pool whilst promoting volunteering to clean up the river.</p><br>
<p>The River Tyburn is a river in London, which runs underground from South Hampstead through St James&#39;s Park to meet the River Thames by Whitehall Stairs . It is not to be confused with the Tyburn Brook which is a tributary of the River Westbourne that is the next Thames tributary to the west on the north bank.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>Before it was culverted, the Tyburn rose from the confluence of two tributary streams from the hills of South Hampstead. Its main source is the Shepherds Well near Fitzjohns Avenue in Hampstead. Between St James&#39;s Park and Buckingham Palace the waters divided to create two distributaries, creating Thorney Island on which Westminster Abbey was built. Enclosed by concrete, bricks, parks and roads the Tyburn flows through underground conduits for its entire length, including one underneath Buckingham Palace and its course has been used for local sewers which connect to the London sewerage system. Marylebone Lane (W1), which defies the grid pattern of streets, follows the course of the Tyburn on what was its left bank through Marylebone village.</p><br>
<p>From its source at the Shepherds Well near Fitzjohns Avenue in Hampstead it follows Scholars Pond Sewer south along Fitzjohns Avenue through South Hampstead (Swiss Cottage) under Avenue Road to Regents Park. To enter the parks perimeter the Tyburn is carried in an aqueduct over the Regent&#39;s Canal then culverted.</p><br>
<p>The Tyburn gave its name to the former area of Tyburn, a manor of Marylebone, which was recorded in Domesday Book and which stood approximately at the west end of what is now Oxford Street, where from late medieval times until the 18th century traitors were left following hanging. Tyburn gave its name to the predecessors of Oxford Street and Park Lane—Tyburn Road and Tyburn Lane respectively.</p><br>
<p>Grays Antique Centre near the junction of Oxford Street and Davies Street claims that the body of water which can be seen in an open conduit in the basement of its premises (pictured) is part of the Tyburn; it is undoubtedly close to the culverted course of the stream. From this point the river loosely followed the course of Bruton Lane, Landsdowne Row, the top of Curzon Street, Half Moon Street and across (now under) the southeast path of Green Park to the front gates of Buckingham Palace from where one mouth allegedly used the depression of St James Park Lake to the river and Downing Street, the route to another mouth apparently cut across the present grid layout towards Thorney Street close to Lambeth Bridge, whilst a third route was a 3 m sewer pipe called the Kings Scholars Pond Sewer which issued near Vauxhall Bridge.</p><br>
<p>The Tannu-Ola mountains Таңды-Уула, Tañdı-Uula, Taᶇdь-Uula, – Tangdy-Uula mountains; Тагнын нуруу, Tağnîn nurú, ) is a mountain range in southern Siberia, in the Tuva Republic of Russia. It extends in an east-west direction and curves along the Mongolian border. Its highest peak reaches 2,930 m.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The northern slopes are part of the watershed of the Yenisei River, facing the western Sayan Mountains. The eastern end touches the large watershed of the Selenge River in Mongolia.</p><br>
<p>The foothills of the southern slopes cross into Mongolian territory. They form the northern limits of a large basin of steppes that extends south to the Mongolian Altay Mountains and includes the salt lake Uvs Nuur. The western end is located near the northern Altay Mountains in the Russian Altai Republic.</p><br>
<p>Car Nicobar  is the northernmost of the Nicobar Islands. It is also one of three local administrative divisions of the Indian district of Nicobar, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Sea Voyagers of the region referred to the island as the “Northern land of the nake” i.e. Car Nakkavar which is perhaps the direct Predecessor of the current name “Car Nicobar". The island was severely affected by the tsunami that was caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which led to many deaths and damaged infrastructure.</p><br>
<h3>2004 tsunami devastation</h3><br>
<p>Car Nicobar lies 750 km from the epicenter of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the ensuing tsunamis struck it with great force. Witnesses reported the waves were as high as 30 ft (9 m). As of December 30, 2004, the number of casualties remained unknown, but were estimated to be high. One survivor told the Associated Press: "There&#39;s not a single hut which is standing. Everything is gone. Most of the people have gone away from the shore and Indian govt has made many relief programmes here such as temporary shelters, subsidize their every primary needs etc."</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Car Nicobar falls in between Little Andaman and Nancowry. The area south to the Ten-degree channel comes under Car Nicobar headquarters. Car Nicobar is remarkably flat except for some cliffs in the north and small hilly areas in the interior. It is bordered by a silvery beach and areas of flat ground consisting of coraline diluvium. It is a flat fertile island covered with clusters of coconut palms and enchanting beaches with a roaring sea all around.</p><br>
<p>Compared to the Middle Andaman and South Andaman, Car Nicobar is a small island, having only 126.9 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The climate of Car Nicobar Island is tropical, as it is just 9 degree from the equator, with an annual rainfall of 400 mm. The data of past ten years shows that the mean relative humidity in the Island is 79%, the mean maximum temperature is of 30.20 C, and mean minimum temperature is 23.00 C.</p><br>
<p>The soil analysis revealed a high content of sand & clay hindering the growth of agricultural crops. The area of Car Nicobar is suitable for the plantation crops, and coconut and areca nut are the major products, which are grown in the area.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, Car Nicobar, along with neighboring Battimalv Island, is a tehsil, roughly equivalent to a county in its range of administrative powers. There are two more Tehsils of Nancowry and Campbell Bay to administer all the other islands of the district. The administrative capital is near the Indian Air Force station Car Nicobar Air Force Base, known as Headquarters which is the largest junction in this small island with some shops, a hospital, a bank, a post office, Office of Superintendent of Police, Office of Deputy Commissioner and some other government offices. The official pin code of Car Nicobar is 744301.</p><br>
<p>Although the area of Car Nicobar is less than 7% of the area of the Nicobar group, in the census of 2011 its population of 17841 was 48% of the total population of Nicobar.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Car Nicobar islands do not have any evergreen forests, which dominate the central and southern islands of the Nicobars. Most of the island is covered with coconut plantation and natural flora is present only in the interior areas.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Car Nicobar the district headquarters is 260 km from Port Blair. Ship service is available between Port Blair and Nicobar district. Normally ship is available twice in a week. One can obtain the ship ticket from the office of the Director, Shipping services (03192-245555) at Port Blair.</p><br>
<p>Andaman and Nicobar Islands Administration in cooperation with Indian Air Force operate charter services between Port Blairs Veer Savarkar International Airport, Campbell Bay and Car Nicobar Air Force Base. Theres also regular service of PHL helicopter available between Car Nicobar and Port Blair and other islands of Nicobar district.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>There are 21 villages, the largest of which is named U-rèk-ka (called "Malacca-Perka" for tourists), with a population of 4,200.</p><br>
<p>The villages are:</p><br>
<p>The names in brackets are often used for tourists and other outsiders, as the local names in Nicobarese are difficult for outsiders to pronounce.</p><br>
<p>Each village has a tuhet meaning elderly heads, the number of which varies. From each of these elders three are elected as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd captain to look after the day-to-day affairs of the village.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census of India, Car Nicobar Island has 4250 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 100%.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the township of Car Nicobar of Car Nicobar Taluk. of Nicobar District. District Administration is headed by Deputy Commissioner(Nicobar) while the Sub Division Car Nicobar is headed by an Assistant Commissioner.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>LeDroit Park  is a neighborhood in Washington, D.C. located immediately southeast of Howard University. Its borders include W Street to the north, Rhode Island Avenue and Florida Avenue to the south, Second Street NW to the east, and Howard University to the west. LeDroit Park is known for its history and 19th century protected architecture. The community&#39;s diversity entices new residents to the community, as well as its close proximity to the Shaw–Howard University Metro station and many dining options.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood was founded in 1873 by Amzi Barber, a businessman who served on the board of trustees of neighboring Howard University. Barber named the neighborhood after his father-in-law, LeDroict Langdon, but dropped the ⟨c⟩.</p><br>
<p>As one of the first suburbs of Washington, LeDroit Park was developed and marketed as a "romantic" neighborhood with narrow tree-lined streets that bore the same names as the trees that shaded them, differing from the street names used in the rest of the city. Extensive focus was placed on the landscaping of this neighborhood, as developers spent a large sum of money to plant flower beds and trees to attract high-profile professionals from the city. Originally a whites-only neighborhood, LeDroit Park was even gated with guards to promote security for its residents. Efforts by many, especially multiple actions by students from Howard University, led to the integration of the area. In July 1888 students tore down the fences that separated the neighborhood in protest of its discriminating policies.</p><br>
<p>By the 1940s LeDroit Park became a major focal point for the African-American elite as many prominent figures resided there. Griffith Stadium, the home of the Washington Redskins and Washington Senators was also located here until 1965, when the Howard University Hospital was built where it used to stand. Le Droit Park includes Anna J. Cooper Circle, named for the education pioneer.</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>Today, the neighborhood&#39;s historic value is officially recognized as the LeDroit Park Historic District. The historic district includes the Mary Church Terrell House, a USA National Historic Landmark. The neighborhood was awarded a place on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<h3>Heritage Trail</h3><br>
<p>On October 17, 2015 the LeDroit Park Heritage Trail was opened. Featuring 16 signs, the 90-minute walking tour chronicles the history of the neighbborhood and its residents. The Trail begins where Florida Avenue, 6th and T Streets, NW meet at the “gateway” to LeDroit Park.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>One of LeDroits most recognizable features is its Victorian mansions, houses and row-houses, designed by architect James McGill. None of the original 64 homes McGill designed in LeDroit Park were identical and most were built between 1873 and 1877. Today, 50 of the original homes remain. McGill was also a member of the LeDroit Park Property Owners Association, a precursor to the LeDroit Park Civic Association, which is active today. LeDroits protected housing stock includes 12 different styles of homes.</p><br>
<h2>Public spaces and art</h2><br>
<p>When the Gage-Eckington School Elementary School closed, residents successfully lobbied the city to tear it down and convert it into a park, which opened in 2011 as The Park at LeDroit.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>General William Birney – Civil War Veteran owned the stately mansion on Anna J. Cooper Circle. (T & Second Street)</p><br>
<p>Senator Edward Brooke – First African-American to win the senate seat by popular vote, was born in this house in 1919. (1938 Third Street)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Ralph J. Bunche – The first African-American to receive the Nobel Peace prize, for his mediation in Palestine; resided in LeDroit Park during his professorship at Howard University. — (No address found)</p><br>
<p>General Benjamin O. Davis Sr. – The first African-American general. Father of Ben O. Davis Jr; commander of the World War II Tuskegee airmen. (No address found)</p><br>
<p>Hon. Oscar De Priest – First Black Congressmen after reconstruction, lived here for his three terms in office. (419 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Paul Laurence Dunbar – Black poet laureate & Howard University alumnus. (321 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Duke Ellington – jazz legend, lived in the neighborhood with his family during his early childhood. (420 Elm Street)</p><br>
<p>Major Christian Fleetwood – One of the first Blacks to be awarded the Medal of Honor. (319 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Julia West Hamilton – Civic leader and member of N.A.C.W. (320 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Rev. Jesse Jackson – Civil rights activist and founder of the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition. (Corner of Fourth & T Streets)</p><br>
<p>Ernest Everett Just – Professor in biology, researcher in biogenetics with significant contributions to zoology and biogenetics. (412 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Doctor Hattie Riggs – A black educator from Calais, Maine, who taught at the M Street High School, lived at this location. Although Dr. Riggs earned her medical degree, she never practiced medicine. (418 T Street NW)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Jesse Lawson and Dr. Anna J. Cooper – Both prominent educators who founded Frelinghuysen University to educate Blacks working-class adults. Lawson also was a Lawyer (Howard University Law, 1881) who advocated for the rights of poor D.C. residents. (201 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Willis Richards – Prominent playwright credited with having the first serious play to be performed on Broadway. (512 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Mary Church Terrell – Heiress and activist for civil rights and woman’s suffrage. (326 T Street, National Historic Landmark)</p><br>
<p>Walter Washington – the first mayor of DC elected under home rule (408 T Street)</p><br>
<p>Clarence Cameron White – A Prominent Violinist educator in fine arts and Howard Alumni (No address found)</p><br>
<p>Dr. Garnet C. Wilkinson – Superintendent of Colored Schools during segregation. (406 U Street)</p><br>
<p>Octavius Augustus Williams – USA Capitol Barber and first Black to move into LeDroit Park in 1893 (338 U Street)</p><br>
<p>The Canada Bay is an estuarine bay on the Parramatta River, in the inner-west of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is the innermost inlet of the larger Hen and Chicken Bay. Two other bays to the north of Canada Bay are two other bays named for Canadian internment camps for convicts involved in the Upper Canada Rebellion:</p><br>
<p>Exile Bay - surrounded by Massey Park Golf Club and Prince Edward Park</p><br>
<p>France Bay - surrounded by residential area of Cabarita, New South Wales</p><br>
<h2>Location and features</h2><br>
<p>The shoreline of Canada Bay is largely open parkland, with some residential use to the north and east. The City West Link Road, a major arterial road, runs along the southern shore of the bay.</p><br>
<p>A suburb on the shore of the bay is named after it, as is the City of Canada Bay, the local government area encompassing a large portion of inner-western Sydney.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name Canada Bay honours a link between Australia and Canada. Following the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837 to 1838, two Irish and 58 French Canadian rebels were deported to Australia. At the request of the local Catholic bishop, they were brought to Sydney. Imprisoned at Longbottom Stockade (which was located at what is now Concord Oval), the convicts broke stone for the construction of Parramatta Road and collected oyster shells for making lime. In 1842, the French Canadians were allowed to work outside the prison. Between 1843 and 1844, all received pardons and, except for two people who died and one (Joseph Marceau) who settled in Dapto all returned to Canada.</p><br>
<p>After the rebellions, the Australian Governor General and High Commissioner to Canada recommended that Britain grant responsible self-government to the Union of Upper and Lower Canada. In the 1850s, the Australian colonies achieved responsible government and parliamentary democracy. Many parts of Canada Bay are a reminder of this history: Exile Bay, France Bay, Durham Street, Marceau Drive, Polding Street and Gipps Street. Bayview Park, occupying the headland at the northern end of the bay, has a plaque that honours the exiles and marks the point of disembarkation.</p><br>
<p>The Rigi  is a mountain massif of the Alps, located in Central Switzerland. The whole massif is almost entirely surrounded by the water of three different water bodies: Lake Lucerne, Lake Zug and Lake Lauerz. The range is in the Schwyzer Alps, and is split between the cantons of Schwyz and Lucerne, although the main summit, named Rigi Kulm, at 1,798 meters above sea level, lies within the canton of Schwyz.</p><br>
<p>The Rigi Kulm and other areas, such as the resort of Rigi Kaltbad, are served by Europe&#39;s oldest mountain railways, the Rigi Railways. The whole area offers many activities such as skiing or sledging in the winter, and hiking in the summer.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Rigi is from Swiss Old High German *rigî "horizontal stratification, strip, band", from OHG rîhan "gird; pleat, string", cf. OHG rîga "row, stripe, furrow", after the horizontal rock ledges and grass strips surrounding the mountain from west to east.</p><br>
<p>The name is first recorded in 1350 as Riginun.</p><br>
<p>The name was interpreted as Regina montium "queen of mountains" by Albrecht von Bonstetten (1479), who however gives Rigena as alternative form."Und ist das der berg Rigena, die die alten ein küngin der bergen geheyssen habent. Dann in dem selbigen berg sint vor langen, alten ziten heiligen verborgen gelegen, die noch zuͦ disen ziten (als man redt) mit himelscher sinphonie und lobgesang oft gehöret werden got lobent, und ir liplichen fuͦsstritten oft gloubhaftigen lüten erschinen sind."</p><br>
<p>"Superioris Germanie Confoederatis descriptio" / "... der Obertütscheit Eidgnosschaft... kurze beschribung" ed. Albert Büchi, QSG 13 (1893), 217–267.</p><br>
<p>Bonstettens interpretation as Regina was influential in the 17th century, and was still repeated in 18th-century travelogues. Karl Zay (Goldau und seine Gegend, 1807) criticized this latinization, arguing for mons rigidus instead. Later in the 19th century, many authors repeated either rigidus or regina as the names supposed origin. The two possibilities were also adduced as explanation the name&#39;s grammatical gender alternating between masculine and feminine.</p><br>
<p>Brandstetter (Die Rigi, 1914) finally discredited these interpretations and established the origin in Old High German rîga (whence modern German Reihe, Reigen; cognate with English row).</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>There are multiple public transport options available to ascend Mt. Rigi:</p><br>
<p>By rack railway from Arth-Goldau and Vitznau, operated by the Rigi Bahnen. The Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn started operation on May 21, 1871 and was the first mountain railway in Europe. On June 4, 1875 the Arth-Rigi-Bahn was finished, allowing access from the other side of the mountain. They were electrified in 1937 and 1907 respectively, with the Arth-Rigi-Bahn becoming the first electrified standard gauge rack-railway in the world. Both lines go all the way to the summit, Rigi Kulm.</p><br>
<p>By gondola lift from Weggis to Rigi-Kaltbad.</p><br>
<p>By cable-car from the Kräbel station on the Arth-Rigi-Bahn line to Rigi-Scheidegg.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Rigi offers an area for recreation and sports measuring approximately 90 km&sup2; offering a variety of well-maintained walking trails or mountain hikes where visitors can have a panoramic view of 150 km from various marked points. There are also numerous public grilling stations located near the hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>Rigi is also a perfect destination for people practising winter sports and other winter recreation activities.</p><br>
<h2>Mt. Rigi in culture</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Rigi has been featured in many works of art, including both paintings and literary publications. Perhaps the most famous paintings of the Rigi were a series by JMW Turner, including The Blue Rigi, Sunrise, several of which are in the collection of the Tate Britain art gallery in London.</p><br>
<p>Mark Twain also visited Rigi during his tour of Central Europe in the late 1870s, and wrote about his travels in chapter 28 of his "A Tramp Abroad."</p><br>
<p>There is a Catskills resort called the Rigi Kulm in Abraham Cahan&#39;s novel The Rise of David Levinsky (1917).</p><br>
<p>The Rigi, a downhill road in Wellington, New Zealand, is named for the mountain and for many years was used as a main thoroughfare for coach riders.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Technically, the Rigi is not a part of the Alps, and belongs instead to the Swiss plateau. It is mostly composed of molasse and other conglomerate, as opposed to the Bündner schist and flysch of the Alps.</p><br>
<p>Patilla Pata is a stratovolcano in the Oruro Department in Bolivia. It is situated in the Sajama Province, in the west of the Curahuara de Carangas Municipality, at the border with Chile. Patilla Pata lies south-west of the mountain Jiska Kunturiri, north-east of the lake Qasiri Quta  and the mountain Qullqi Warani, west of the little lake Sura Pata, south-east of the mountains Laram Qawa, Kunturiri and Milluni and south of the little lake named Chiyar Quta.</p><br>
<p>The river Juntuma Kuchu (Aymara juntu warm, hot, uma water, kuchu corner, "warm water corner", Junthuma Khuchu) originates south of Patilla Pata. It flows to the south-east as a right affluent of the Sajama River.</p><br>
<p>The date of its last eruption is unclear, but it is unlikely to be during the Holocene as the mountain is heavily glaciated. The composition of the volcano is largely andesitic, but there are also a number of basaltic lava flows.</p><br>
<p>Nevado Sajama is an extinct stratovolcano and the highest peak in Bolivia. The mountain is located in the Oruro Department, Sajama Province, Curahuara de Carangas Municipality, Sajama Canton. It is situated in the Sajama National Park in the southwest area of the country some 16–24 km  from the border with Chile. The peak is an isolated cone, but is geologically complex, with lava domes of andesitic and rhyodactic composition overlain by an andesitic stratovolcano. The date of the most recent eruption is uncertain, although Holocene activity is assigned to the volcano by many. The treeline of Polylepis tarapacana on the volcano is as high as 5,200 m above sea level, one of the highest altitudes trees can be found growing anywhere in the world.</p><br>
<p>Joseph Prem made the first attempt to climb the mountain in 1927 by the northwest ridge but was stopped short at 6,200 m. After several more attempts, Prem along with Wilfrid Kuehm reached the top in August 1939 by a more difficult southeast ridge.</p><br>
<p>From the village of Sajama an acclimatised team can climb the mountain in two or three days if weather conditions are favorable. Currently the easiest of the routes is the SW ridge. This route is technically easy, require some minimal mountaineering equipment and does not present any particular difficulty except some snow slopes up to 45 degrees.</p><br>
<p>In August 2001, two teams of Sajama villagers and Bolivian mountain guides played a football match on top of Mount Sajama in an effort to show that altitude itself is not a limitation to physical strain.</p><br>
<p>Indeed, the objective was to protest against the FIFA decision to discontinue the use of La Paz as a location to hold international football matches, because of its very high elevation.</p><br>
<p>Parinacota , Parina Quta or Parinaquta is a dormant stratovolcano on the border of Chile and Bolivia. Together with Pomerape it forms the Nevados de Payachata volcanic chain. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its summit reaches an elevation of 6,380 m above sea level. The symmetrical cone is capped off by a summit crater with widths of 1 km or 500 m. Farther down on the southern slopes lie three parasitic centres known as the Ajata cones. These cones have generated lava flows. The volcano overlies a platform formed by lava domes and andesitic lava flows.</p><br>
<p>The volcano started growing during the Pleistocene and formed a large cone. At some point between the Pleistocene and the Holocene, the western flank of the volcano collapsed, generating a giant landslide that spread west and formed a large, hummocky landslide deposit. The avalanche crossed and dammed a previously existing drainage, impounding or enlarging Lake Chungará; numerous other lakes now forming the headwaters of the Rio Lauca sprung up within the deposit. Volcanic activity rebuilt the cone after the collapse, cancelling out the collapse scar.</p><br>
<p>Parinacota had numerous effusive and explosive eruptions during the Holocene, the latest about 200 years ago. While there are no recorded eruptions, legends of the local Aymara people imply that they may have witnessed one eruption.</p><br>
<p>Renewed activity at Parinacota is possible in the future, although the relatively low population density in the region acts to limit the amount of damage that could occur. Some towns and a regional highway between Bolivia and Chile are potentially exposed to the effects of a new eruption.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name "Parinacota" is Aymara. Parina means flamingo and quta lake. Parinacota and its neighbour Pomerape are also known as the Nevados de Payachata, "twins". This refers to the fact that both volcanoes resemble each other.</p><br>
<h2>Geomorphology and geology</h2><br>
<p>Parinacota lies on the western margin of the Altiplano in the Central Andes, with the frontier between Bolivia and Chile crossing through the volcano. In Chile, where most of the edifice is located, Parinacota lies in the commune of Putre, Arica y Parinacota Region, and in Bolivia in the Oruro Department of the Sajama Province. The towns of Ajata lie southwest and Parinacota west of the volcano. The region lies at high altitude and access is difficult, hampering research on the volcanoes of the Central Andes.</p><br>
<h3>Regional</h3><br>
<p>The Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate subduct beneath the South America Plate in the Peru-Chile Trench at a pace of 7 - and 2 cm/year, respectively, resulting in volcanic activity in the Andes. Present-day volcanism occurring within four discrete belts: The Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) and the Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ). These extend between 2°N-5°S, 16°S-28°S, 33°S-46°S and 49°S-55°S, respectively. Between them they contain about 60 active volcanoes and 118 volcanoes which appear to have been active during the Holocene, not including potentially active very large silicic volcanic systems or very small monogenetic ones. These belts of active volcanism occur where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a steep angle, while in the volcanically inactive gaps between them the subduction is much shallower; thus there is no asthenosphere between the slab of the subducting plate and the overriding plate in the gaps.</p><br>
<p>Parinacota is part of the CVZ, which contains about 44 active volcanoes. Most volcanoes of the CVZ are relatively poorly researched and many exceed 5,000 m of elevation. Some of these edifices were active during historical time; these include El Misti, Lascar, San Pedro and Ubinas; the largest historical eruption of the CVZ occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina. Other volcanoes in the CVZ that have been the subject of research are Galan and Purico complex. The CVZ has a characteristically thick crust (50 -) and the volcanic rocks have peculiar oxygen and strontium isotope ratios in comparison to the SVZ and NVZ. Parinacota lies in a segment of the CVZ where the Peru-Chile Trench undergoes a 45° curvature, and where the direction of subduction changes from diagonal to perpendicular. The crust is especially thick there, the reasons for this are not agreed upon yet and may vary between the western and eastern sides of the CVZ.</p><br>
<p>Subduction-related volcanism in the region has been ongoing since 200 million years ago, burying most of the Precambrian basement. Various units of sedimentary and volcanic origin form most of the outcropping basement in the region. A dramatic increment of volcanic activity occurred approximately 27 million years ago, when the Farallon Plate broke apart and subduction increased substantially. On the Bolivian side the oldest volcanites are the Oligocene Kollukollu formation 34 million years ago and the 23 million years old Rondal Lavas. Miocene volcanic activity generated the Berenguela, Carangas and Mauri formations, followed by the Perez formation during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. These formations were all affected by terrain uplift and folding, probably linked to changes in the subduction regime. Volcanism continued into the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and was accompanied by glacial activity during the Pleistocene. During this whole time period, volcanic activity progressively migrated westward; presently, it is located on the Bolivia-Chile border.</p><br>
<h3>Local</h3><br>
<p>Parinacota is a highly symmetric volcanic cone, having the classical "regular cone" shape of a stratovolcano. The volcano is 6,380 m high and features both blocky lava flows and scoria flows. Lava flows are fresh with levees, lobes and flow ridges, and reach lengths of 7 km on the slopes of the cone. The lava flows are between 10 - thick and can spread to widths of 1,200 m at the foot of the volcano. Pyroclastic flows are also found, reaching lengths of 7 km and are usually poorly consolidated, containing with breadcrust bombs and breccia.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is capped off by a 1 km wide and 300 m deep summit crater, which has a pristine appearance. Other data imply a width of 500 m and a depth of 100 m. The crater is the source of pumice flows, which have well conserved surface features such as levees and lobes especially down on the eastern slope. These pumice flows extend as far as 2 km away from the crater. An ashfall deposit spreads east from Parinacota to a distance of 15 km in Bolivia. Ash and lapilli deposits have been found at the shores of Lake Chungará as well.</p><br>
<p>The cone sits atop a 50 m thick multilobed andesitic platform known as the "Chungará Andesites" which crop out on the north shore of Lake Chungará in the form of a shelf. Overlying this shelf is a system of lava domes, which reach thicknesses of 150 m. The lava domes are accompanied by block-and-ash flow deposits that reach lengths of 3.5 km. A steep descend leads to Lake Chungará.</p><br>
<p>South of the main edifice lie the parasitic vents known as the Ajata cones, which formed along a fissure that emanates from the main cone and is aligned with the regional Condoriri-Parinacota lineament. The dimensions of the cones reach 250 m width and 70 m height. The High Ajata flow emanates from a single cone and spreads southwest as a lobated lava flow. The middle Ajata flow is much smaller and is sourced to three different cones below the source of the High Ajata, each cone having its own small flow field. The upper and lower Ajata flows are only slightly smaller than the High Ajata flow and form superposed lava flows lower on the edifice. These lava flows are gray-black aa lava flows, commonly up to 20 m thick; the longest of these flows reaches a length of 3 km.</p><br>
<p>Older are the large dacitic lava flows known as the "Border Dacites" on the southeastern side of Parinacota, which reach dimensions of 4 x over horizontal distance. A similar but smaller lava flow lies west of the Border Dacites, entirely within Chile. These three lava flows have a total volume of about 6 km3. Overall, Parinacota rises 1,768 m from a surface of 170.6 km&sup2, the resulting edifice has a volume of 40.6 km3.</p><br>
<p>On the northern side Parinacota partly overlaps with Pomerape. Parinacota together with Pomerape and volcanoes farther south like Quisiquisini, Guallatiri and Poquentica forms the eastern margin of the Lauca basin. This is a relatively gentle plain drained by the Rio Lauca. A chain of dormant or extinct volcanoes farther west like Taapaca forms the western margin of the basin and separates the Altiplano from the steep dropoff to the Atacama west of the Lauca basin.</p><br>
<h4>Glaciers</h4><br>
<p>The old cone was subject to glaciation, and traces of glacial erosion are preserved on its lava flows. A system of moraines can be seen at an elevation of 4,500 m on the southeastern foot of the volcano, where they partly cross the shores of Lake Chungará. Six such 5 - high moraines have been identified there, they were formed during the regional last glacial maximum (which did not coincide with the global last glacial maximum). Other, unspecified glacial deposits have also been observed in this area.</p><br>
<p>Presently, a 4 km&sup2; or 12 km&sup2; large ice cap covers the upper parts of the volcano and drops down to an elevation of about 5,600 m. There is also a large glacier on its southern flank. Some reports disagree with calling any part of Parinacota&#39;s ice cap a "glacier&quot however. There is no indication of a retreat of the ice at Parinacota between 1928 and 1958, and most of the ice lies on the western slope of the mountain.</p><br>
<h4>Sector collapse</h4><br>
<p>Parinacota shows evidence of a major sector collapse (a giant landslide), whose deposit was originally interpreted to be a lava flow. The collapse removed a volume of about 5 - from the cone, plunged over 1,900 m vertical distance and flowed 23 km west, covering a surface area of 110 km&sup2; or 253 km&sup2; with debris; the volume is not very well established.</p><br>
<p>As the volcano grew, it put more and more load on relatively weak sedimentary material that the volcano had developed on, until these sedimentary rocks gave way. The western slope might have been weakened by glacial action, further facilitating the onset of the collapse. The collapse was probably sequential from the lower part of the edifice to the summit, ant it formed an avalanche of rocks that flowed down the volcano. This flow was probably laminar and extremely fast (25 - ), judging from the morphologies of the avalanche deposit, and it incorporated substantial pre-collapse sediments from the Lauca basin. As the avalanche descended the slopes of the volcano, it picked up enough speed to run up on some topographical obstacles. Such collapses have occurred on other volcanoes in the CVZ such as Llullaillaco, Ollagüe, Socompa and Tata Sabaya; the most recent event occurred between 1787 and 1802 at Tutupaca in Peru and was much smaller than the Parinacota sector collapse.</p><br>
<p>The collapse event resembled the one that occurred on Mount St. Helens during the latter&#39;s eruption in 1988, although the Parinacota collapse was three times larger. A separate, minor sector collapse occurred on a lava dome on the southwestern foot of the volcano at an unknown time. Such sector collapses are a common phenomenon on volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>The avalanche eventually came to rest in a large "L" with the long side extending along the axis of the collapse and the short side closer to the edifice pointing north, formed an exceptionally well preserved debris avalanche deposit. This deposit has a "hummocky" appearance typical for sector collapse deposits; individual hummocks can reach sizes of 400 - and heights of 80 m, with the size decreasing away from the volcano. The formation of these hummocks was probably influenced by the pre-existing structure of the edifice; much of the original stratigraphy of the pre-collapse edifice was preserved within the final collapse deposit. A few large Toreva blocks lie in the avalanche deposit just at the foot of Parinacota, they reach heights of 250 m and volumes of 0.05 km3. Large blocks with sizes of up to 100 m are part of the deposit, and some of these blocks preserve details of the pre-collapse structure; the blocks reach sizes of 0.5 - even at large distance from Parinacota. These large blocks dominate the avalanche deposit; fine material is not present in the Parinacota collapse deposit, an unusual feature among debris avalanches. The avalanche deposit displays a noticeable split into two units, the upper one is andesitic and originated from the actual cone, the lower one is derived from the lava domes beneath the present-day edifice.</p><br>
<p>This collapse gave birth to Lake Chungará when the avalanche flowed across a westbound drainage between Choquelimpie and Parinacota, forming a 40 m high volcanic dam that retained about 0.4 km3 of water. The formation of lakes during sector collapses has been observed at other volcanoes, including the 1988 Mount St. Helens collapse. Prior to the collapse, alluvial and riverine deposits occupied the area. In 2015 it was proposed that a much smaller lake occupied part of the Lake Chungará basin before the collapse.</p><br>
<p>Within the hummock-like topography of the deposit, a number of other lakes and peat filled basins are found, formed by water percolating through the avalanche deposit. These lakes are known as the Lagunas Cotacotani lakes, they are an important bird refuge. At least some of these lakes may be kettle holes, formed when blocks of ice transported within the avalanche melted. With increasing distance from the main cone the size of the lakes decreases. Some of these lakes are connected with each other and others are isolated, and during periods of low lake stands some of the lakes can become disconnected from each other. Springs at the foot of Parinacota form the Rio Benedicto Morales which flows through some of the lakes and ends in the main Lake Cotacotani. Otherwise, these lakes receive water from Lake Chungará through seepage. The lakes ultimately form the headwaters of the Rio Lauca, whose course previously extended across the area covered by the avalanche. The river has not carved an outlet all the way to Lake Chungará, probably because the relatively coarse avalanche deposit allows large amounts of water to seep through without carving a new river channel. The rate at which waters seep through the avalanche deposit has been estimated at 25 l/s; it has progressively decreased over time, probably as a consequence of increased siltation within the avalanche deposit. Thus the depth and surface area of Lake Chungará have increased since the formation of the lake and so did evaporation, which currently removes almost 5/6 of the total inflow.</p><br>
<p>A pumice fall deposit of dacitic composition is associated with the sector collapse event, which together with lava bombs suggest that an eruption took place at the time of the collapse; this has been contested however. The sector collapse was probably not caused by an eruption, although the intrusion of a cryptodome may have helped. There is no evidence on the edifice for the existence of a collapse scar, indicating that post-collapse volcanic activity has completely filled up the space removed by the collapse. The volcanic edifice has reached a similar volume as it had before the failure.</p><br>
<h4>Surroundings</h4><br>
<p>The terrain around Parinacota is mostly formed by Neogene volcanic rocks. These are for the most part over one million years old and include individual volcanic centres such as Caldera Ajoya, Caldera Lauca, Choquelimpie, Condoriri, Guane Guane, Larancagua and Quisiquisini, and the Miocene Lauca ignimbrite (2.7 ± 0.1 million years ago) that forms the basement. The activity of many of these centres occurred over 6.6 million years ago. At slightly larger distances lie the volcanoes Guallatiri, Nevados de Quimsachata and Taapaca. Proterozoic and paleozoic basement rocks crop out as charnockite/granulite east and as amphibolite/gneiss west of the volcano, respectively. Other formations include the volcaniclastic Lupica formation of Oligocene-Miocene age and the lacustrine Lauca formation.</p><br>
<p>A number of volcanoes have been active around Parinacota in the last one million years. Pomerape northeast of Parinacota is similar to Parinacota but the greater degrees of erosional decay suggest it is older than Parinacota; a subsidiary vent dated 205,000 years ago is found on its eastern slope. Pomerape is a comparatively simple volcanic cone whose foot is covered by glacial debris. One age obtained on the cone is 106,000 ± 7,000 years ago. The Caquena and Chucullo rhyolitic to andesitic lava domes are found northwest and southwest of Parinacota, respectively; they are associated with the oldest stages of activity at Parinacota.</p><br>
<h4>Periglacial and erosional landforms</h4><br>
<p>Periglacial landscapes are frequent in the area; they include plantation surfaces, rounded landforms, solifluction terrain and striated terrain. This extensiveness is the result of the relatively dry climate in the region, which limits the development of glaciers. On Parinacota, landforms of this type are found starting from 4,450 m elevation and become dominant above 5,300 m until the glacier line. Lahars also occurred during the history of Parinacota; 0.2 - thick layers of lahar deposits are found on the southern and eastern slopes and form a fan on the northwestern slope of Parinacota. At this fan, lahar deposits reach distances of 15 km away from the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Erosion has formed gullies on the upper sector of Parinacota. Otherwise, the volcanic rocks of Parinacota are well preserved owing to the arid climate and the youth of the volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Petrology</h3><br>
<p>Volcanic rocks erupted by Parinacota range in composition from basaltic andesite to rhyolite. Andesites from the old cone are classified as hornblende and pyroxene andesites. Minerals found within the rocks include amphibole, apatite, biotite, clinopyroxene, iron oxide and titanium oxide, feldspar, olivine, orthopyroxene, pyroxene, sanidine and zircon. Not all of these minerals are found in rocks from all stages of Parinacota. Some of these minerals, such as quartz and sanidine, were at least in part formed by the inclusion of foreign rocks into the magma. Gabbro and granite are found as xenoliths.</p><br>
<p>Overall, volcanic rocks at Parinacota belong to a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. The volcanites have characteristically high contents of barium and strontium, especially in the youngest Ajata rocks where their concentration is higher than in any other CVZ volcanic rock. A trend to a more tholeiitic composition in younger eruptions may reflect an increased magma flux and a decreased interaction with the upper crust.</p><br>
<p>The magmas that formed Parinacota and Pomerape are considered to be a group distinct from these that formed older volcanic centres in the region, but also distinct from the magmas that formed the subsidiary vent of Pomerape and the Ajata cones; these tend to be more mafic. In turn, the younger and older Ajata cone lavas have different compositions, one having a high quantity of strontium and the other a low one.</p><br>
<p>Magmas in the Parinacota region formed through distinct processes. One of these is fractional crystallization within closed magma chambers. Another is the mixing of different magmas, one of which in the case of Parinacota may be the Ajata magmas. More specifically, two different magmas with compositions akin to the Ajata magmas contributed the mafic element to the Parinacota magmas. Some differences in magma composition between various volcanoes and stages may reflect the occurrence of several different magma differentiation events.</p><br>
<p>Processes within magma chambers play an important role in the formation of the magmas erupted by volcanoes. The diversity of the petrographic patterns suggest that Parinacota did not have a single major magma chamber, but rather various magma reservoirs at various depths and with variable interconnection patterns. Some Ajata magmas bypassed the shallow reservoirs completely. Starting about 28,000 years ago however several different magma systems consolidated into one, probably as a result of more frequent injections of new magma and/or the accumulation of cumulates that insulated the magmatic system. The transit of the magmas through the conduit system probably takes several ten thousand years, and the residence time within magma chambers could be on the orders of 100,000 years.</p><br>
<p>In the case of Parinacota, there is a noticeable difference between the pre-sector collapse and post-sector collapse magmas, indicating that a large turnover of the magmatic system was triggered by the landslide. More specifically, after the collapse erupted rocks became more mafic and their composition more influenced by fractional crystallization, while the preceding magmas were more strongly affected by mixing processes. Also, magma output increased significantly, while the resting time in the magma chambers decreased. Modelling indicates that over the short term, a collapse would cause activity to stop at a volcano of Parinacotas size, and over the long term the plumbing system would change and become shallower. Also, the plumbing system of the volcano would become more permissive to denser mafic magmas after a sector collapse, perhaps explaining why the Ajata vents were active after the collapse but the magma erupted through them influenced petrogenesis of main cone magmas much earlier. The magnitude of such changes is considerably larger than at neighbouring volcano Taapaca, where a sector collapse was not accompanied by changes in activity; presumably Parinacotas shallower magma supply system made it more susceptible to the effects of unloading.</p><br>
<p>The source of the Parinacota magmas is ultimately the mantle wedge above the slab of the Nazca Plate. Fluids released from the slab flux the wedge and trigger the formation of melts, with the assistance of asthenospheric material that is hotter and gets transported into the wedge. These ascending magmas then interact with the crust, resulting in extensive changes to their composition. The area in the crust where such interaction takes place is known as "MASH" or "Melting Assimilation Storage Homogenization", and it is there where the base magmas are formed which then enter into shallow magmatic systems. Further, the relative thickness of the crust and narrowness of the mantle wedge mean that garnet is stable within the wedge, causing the magmas to be influenced by garnet-linked petrogenic processes. Shallower crustal components such as the locally extensive Lauca-Perez ignimbrite may have been assimilated by Parinacota as well. These crustal components contributed about 12% of the primitive magmas as erupted by the Ajata cones, while the mantle wedge contributed 83%. Fluids from the slab and sediments subducted in the Peru-Chile Trench added the remaining 3 and 2%.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Average temperatures at Parinacota are about 2.5 -, with the 0 &deg;C isotherm hovering between 4,800 - elevation. On neighbouring Sajama, on the summit temperatures range -7.5 -. The atmosphere becomes thinner and drier at higher altitudes, allowing both increased solar radiation to reach the surface during daytime and more thermal radiation from the ground to escape to the top of the atmosphere during night. This pattern determines a large diurnal temperature amplitude in the region, with variations on the scale of 20 -.</p><br>
<p>Average precipitation at Parinacota is about 440 mm/year. Between about 12 and 26° degrees southern latitude, most of the moisture that arrives was absorbed by winds over the Amazon and transported to the Andes. Thus, humidity increases from west to east, with the Pacific coastline being particularly dry. Parinacota lies within the puna seca climate region, where precipitation occurs over 7 or 8 months of wet season and result in a total amount of 500 -, most of it falling during the summer months when the Altiplano warms up under the sun, generating a monsoon like wind current. The summer precipitation is also known as the "Bolivian winter" or "Altiplanic winter". This is an unusual precipitation pattern for Chile; most of the country has a mediterranean climate where most precipitation occurs during the winter months.</p><br>
<p>The arid climate is a consequence of the activity of the South Pacific High just off the coast, the rain shadow effect of the Andes and the cold Humboldt Current in the Pacific Ocean. The dry climate became apparent in the region 10–15 million years ago. The generally arid climate of the region means that volcanoes can remain topographically recognizable for a long time, being subject to only minimal erosion. Likewise, the groundwater pools in the region tend to be fairly old, going back to 13,000 - 12,000 years ago. The climate was not always so dry in the past; around 28,000 years ago and between 13,000 - 8,200 years ago a wet period was accompanied by advances of glaciers. Because of the aridity, relatively little sediment is flushed into the Peru-Chile Trench from land, which has effects on the tectonics of the region and the chemistry of the magmas erupted in the volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>Winds at Parinacota come generally from the west, except during the wet season when easterly winds are common. This wind pattern is controlled by the formation of a high-pressure area and a shift of the subtropical jet stream to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Andes are a long mountain chain with different climates at various latitudes and elevations. Thus, vegetation differs from one location to the other. In the region of Parinacota, between 3,400 - altitude the vegetation is formed by shrub steppe such as Baccharis incarum, Baccharis tola, Fabiana densa; the dominant species are Deyuexia breviaristata, Festuca orthophylla, Parastrephia lucida and Parastrphia quadrangularis. During the wet season, this vegetation is augmented by herbaceous plants. Above 4,000 m a grass vegetation dominates, which on rocky ground occasionally gives way to cushion vegetation such as Azorella compacta, whose yellow colour is characteristic and can be seen from large distances. This type of xeric vegetation is also known as "puna". Polylepis tarapacana is the only true tree found at these altitudes and forms small woods, up to elevations of 5,100 m. Close to water, the bofedal marsh-like vegetation prevails, with Oxychloe andina being the dominant species. Some genera and species are Endemic to the region; they include Chilotrichiops, Lampaya, Parastrephia and Oreocerus.</p><br>
<p>Among the ecological factors that determine vegetation in the region are lack of water, saline soils, plentiful solar irradiation, herbivores, wind and cold nighttime temperatures. These plant species which release airborne pollen can often be identified in samples taken from Parinacota&#39;s icecap, where winds deposit the pollen grains.</p><br>
<p>Animal species that live around Parinacota include flamingo, guanaco, huemul, rhea, vicuña and viscacha. Among predatory animals feature the Andean cat, the pampas cat and the puma. The most abundant animal species however are rodents, some of which can be found up to the highest treelines and which include the viscacha and the burrowing tuco-tuco. Also important are birds, such as the rhea, the tinamous, flamingos and various predatory and wetland birds, including the Andean condor.</p><br>
<p>Many mammal species in the area were decimated in the past, although some have displayed a recent recovery in numbers. Parinacota and surroundings in 1965 were made part of the Lauca National Park, which was further modified in 1970 and 1983. This natural preserve features a unique flora and fauna for Chile. However, potential future water diversions from Lake Chungará, the hunting of indigenous animals, overharvesting of the vegetation, overgrazing and the existence of a major border-crossing highway close to Lake Chungará constitute ongoing threats to the environment around Parinacota.</p><br>
<p>Lake Chungará adds to the local flora and fauna. These include charophytes, diatoms and aquatic macrophyte plants. Animal taxa found in the lake include bivalves, gastropods and ostracods. About 19 species of Orestias fish are found in the lake, some of which are endemic. The speciation of Orestias chungarensis, Orestias laucaensis and Orestias piacotensis was aided by the volcanic activity of Parinacota and its collapse, which separated the watersheds inhabited by their ancestor species and caused allopatric speciation.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Parinacota underwent five separate stages of volcanic activity. A relatively young age of the last eruption is presumed considering the good preservation of volcanic landforms, such as lava flows and the summit crater; SERNAGEOMIN considers it the most active volcano of the Central Andes by magma output. The high magma output may be facilitated by the presence of faults that facilitate the rising of magma; the Condoriri lineament in the area could be the fault that channels magma to Parinacota. The injection of mafic magmas into magma chambers and the mixing between magmas of different composition has been held responsible for the onset of eruptions at many volcanoes including Parinacota.</p><br>
<h3>Chungará Andesites and lava domes</h3><br>
<p>The oldest volcanic structure of Parinacota are the "Chungará Andesites" and the overlying lava dome, which form the platform that crops out on the southern side of the Parinacota volcano, facing Lake Chungará. Erosion and glacial action has smoothed the surfaces of these rocks, leaving no primary textures.</p><br>
<p>This platform was erupted between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago. The finer subdivision defines the "Chungará Andesites" as having erupted 163,000 - 117,000 years ago and the "Rhyolite domes" being 52,000 - 42,000 years old. Other dates obtained on these stages are 110,000 ± 4,000 and 264,000 ± 30,000 years ago for the Chungará Andesites and over 112,000 ± 5,000 for the "rhyolite domes". These two units are also called "Parinacota 1". A hiatus of over 60,000 years occurred between the eruption of the "Chungará Andesites" and the formation of the lava dome plateau. Traces of explosive activity during the lava dome stage have been found.</p><br>
<p>The "Chungará Andesites" have a volume of over 4 km3; material from these stages was incorporated in the collapse deposit. Pomerape volcano developed during this time as well. This and the long delay between the eruption of the Chungará Andesites and the rest of the volcano&#39;s history may imply that the magmatic systems involved were different. Magma output during the early stage was low, with a magma output of 0.13 km3/year with the dome growth contributing 0.5 ±.</p><br>
<h3>Old Cone and sector collapse</h3><br>
<p>At the same time as the lava domes were emplaced, the Old Cone started growing a short distance northwest of the domes. The temporal gap between this stage of Parinacota&#39;s activity and the previous one may be because the deposits from this time interval are only poorly preserved. The Old Cone developed over 85,000 years until the sector collapse, and is also known as Parinacota 2. Outcrops of this stage are found mostly low on the southeastern and north-northwestern slopes; individual dates obtained on rocks from this stage are 20,000 ± 4,000, 46,700 ± 1,600, and 53,000 ± 11,000 years ago. The "Border Dacites" also belong to this stage, being dated at 28,000 ± 1,000 years ago. Likewise, ash fall deposits found in the Cotacotani lakes have been dated to this period of volcanic history, indicating that the Old Cone occasionally featured explosive eruptions. This stage erupted andesite and dacite in the form of three distinct suites. Magma output during this time was about 0.46 ±. This also was a time of glacier growth and development in the region, and consequently a glacier cap developed on the Old Cone during this time. By the time of the sector collapse, the glaciers were already retreating.</p><br>
<p>The date of the collapse is not known with certainty, because dates have been obtained on various materials with different stratigraphic interpretations. 18,000 years ago was considered the most likely estimate, but ages as young as 8,000 years ago were also proposed. Radiocarbon dates from peat within the collapse deposit indicated an age of 13,500 years ago, or 11,500 - 13,500 years ago. Many dates were obtained on material predating the collapse that was embedded within the collapse deposit, and thus the most likely time for the collapse was considered to be 8,000 years ago. Later research indicated an age between 13,000 - 20,000 years ago, the most recent proposal is 8,800 ± 500 years before present.</p><br>
<p>The postulated period coincides with a global clustering of volcano collapse events; perhaps global warming occurring during this time when the last glacial maximum approached its end predisposed volcanoes to collapse. On the other hand, the younger dates of around 8,000 years ago significantly post-date the end of glaciation, thus if the collapse occurred at that time it was probably unrelated to glacial fluctuations. This collapse and the collapse of Socompa farther south may have affected humans in the region.</p><br>
<h3>Young cone and Ajata</h3><br>
<p>After the collapse, the cone was relatively rapidly rebuilt during the Young Cone stage reaching a total volume of approximately 15 km3. The units erupted during this time are also known as the "healing flows" or Parinacota 3. During this stage, volcanic activity was focused on the summit crater. This stage was relatively short and accompanied by an increase in the magma output of Parinacota to 2 - depending on how the duration of this stage is measured. The higher magma flux is comparable to peak output by other large stratovolcanoes. The maximum possible magma flux at Parinacota during this period is about 10 km3/year.</p><br>
<p>Apart from lava flows, sub-Plinian eruptions generated pumice and scoria flows, with some individual explosive eruptions dated to 4,800 ± 800, 4,300 ± 2,600 and 3,600 ± 1,100 years ago. Based on the patterns of tephra deposition in Lake Chungará, it is inferred that the rate of explosive activity increased after the early Holocene until recent times; in addition, tephra falls contributed calcium to the lake waters. It has been proposed that dust particles found in ice cores at Nevado Sajama may actually be tephra from Parinacota.</p><br>
<p>Various Holocene dates have been obtained from rocks on the southern flank of the Young Cone; the youngest date for this stage was obtained by argon-argon dating: 500 ± 300 years ago. Further, an age of less than 200 BP has been determined by radiocarbon dating for a pyroclastic flow.</p><br>
<p>Other recent activity, originally considered to be the youngest, formed the Ajata cones. These cones are constructed by basaltic andesite with a volume of about 0.2 km3. The Ajata cones form four groups of different ages: The lower Ajata flows were erupted 5,985 ± 640 and 6,560 ± 1,220 years ago, the upper Ajata flows 4,800 ± 4,000 years ago, the middle Ajata flows 9,900 ± 2,100 years ago, and the High Ajata flows 2,000 - 1,300 years ago. These groups also form compositionally distinct units. The youngest surface exposure date obtained is 1,385 ± 350 years ago.</p><br>
<p>According to SERNAGEOMIN, Aymara legends referencing volcanic activity imply a latest eruption date of 1800 AD. One history narrating of a bearded man, son of the Sun, that was mistreated by a local town head with the exception of a woman and her son. They were warned that a great disaster would happen, and as they fled from the town it was destroyed by fire. Details of the story imply that the story might reference a small explosive eruption that sent a pyroclastic flow into Lake Chungará after the time of the Spanish conquest; the theory that it references the sector collapse conversely appears to be unlikely.</p><br>
<h2>Present-day activity and hazards</h2><br>
<p>Presently, Parinacota is dormant, but future volcanic activity is possible. Explicit fumarolic activity has not been observed, but satellite imaging has shown the evidence of thermal anomalies on the scale of 6 K-change, and reports of sulfurous smells at the summit imply that a fumarole may exist in the summit area. The volcano is seismically active including one potential seismic swarm, but earthquake activity is less than Guallatiri farther south. Based on Landsat Thematic Mapper images, it was considered a potentially active volcano in 1991.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is one among ten volcanoes in northern Chile monitored by SERNAGEOMIN and has a volcano hazard level published. The relatively low population density on the Bolivian side of the volcano means that renewed activity would not constitute a major threat there, although the town of Sajama may be affected. The Arica-La Paz highway runs close to the volcano and might be threatened by mud- and debris flows, along with small communities in the area. Communities close to the volcano include Caquena, Chucullo and Parinacota. Potential hazards from future activity include the development of lahars from interactions between magma and the ice cap, as well as eruptions from the flank vents; ash fall from prolonged flank vent eruptions could disturb pastures in the region. The important natural preserve that is the Lauca National Park could suffer significant disruption from renewed eruptions of Parinacota.</p><br>
<h2>Legends and archeology</h2><br>
<p>The region around Parinacota has been inhabited since about 7,000 - 10,000 years. Politically, since 1,000 years ago first Tiwanaku and then the Inka ruled over the region. In contrast with many other local mountains, no archeological findings are reported from the summit of Parinacota.</p><br>
<p>Several legends concern Parinacota and its sister mountain Pomerape, which are often portrayed as unmarried sisters. Some involve a dispute with or between the mountains Tacora and Sajama, often resulting in Tacora being driven off.</p><br>
<p>Acotango is the central and highest of a group of stratovolcanoes straddling the border of Bolivia and Chile. It is 6,052 m high. The group is known as Kimsa Chata and consists of three mountains: Acotango, Umurata  north of it and Capurata  south of it.</p><br>
<p>The group lies along a north-south alignment. The Acotango volcano is heavily eroded, but a lava flow on its northern flank is morphologically young, suggesting Acotango was active in the Holocene. Later research has suggested that lava flow may be of Pleistocene age. Glacial activity has exposed parts of the inner volcano, which is hydrothermally altered. Glacial moraines lie at an altitude of 4,200 m but a present ice cap is only found past 6,000 m of altitude.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is a popular hiking route in the Sajama National Park and Lauca National Park. To climb the summit from the Chilean side is dangerous due to land mines, however it is relatively safe to climb the summit from the Bolivian side. The southern ascent starts over a glacier and passes an abandoned copper mine.</p><br>
<p>It is believed that Pedro Rosende, a Chilean explorer, found the remains of firewood at the summit of Acotango. Because of this, it is thought that the mountain might have been one of the high Incan Andean sanctuaries. However, more exploration is needed to verify this information.</p><br>
<p>Sacabaya  is a pyroclastic shield in Bolivia. It is located on the Altiplano near to the Rio Lauca. The volcano is composed of ignimbrite, which has formed a shield. The shield is capped by an area of vents which has many overlapping craters, and is elongated in shape. At the southern end lies the youngest of the craters which has a lava dome within it.</p><br>
<p>Sacabaya has a diametre of 8 km and rises 360 m to the summit; the edifice is covered by material produced during explosive activity. The summit contains a north-south row of several pit craters, each with a diametre of about 1.5 km, and one of which contains a lava dome. Material from the volcano has been transported away by wind. The volcano may be of Holocene age and is presently fumarolically active (GVP).</p><br>
<p>Tata Sabaya is a stratovolcano in Bolivia. It is located at the northern end of the Salar de Coipasa, which lies in the Altiplano. It also lies at eastern end of a line of volcanoes starting with Isluga in the west, and continuing with Cabaray. Its last eruption date is unknown, but it is assigned to the Holocene due to the youthful appearance of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The volcano is a symmetrical unglaciated cone that rises 1700m above the surrounding terrain, and part of an east-west chain of two volcanoes with Cerro Sacsani. The volcano formed as a pyroclastic shield possibly surrounding a central lava dome that was subsequently buried by an andesitic cone. The volcano is constructed on Cenozoic ignimbrites; some granitic terrain is exposed on the northern side of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Petrology</h2><br>
<p>The magmas forming the volcano became more silicic over time. Phenocrysts are dominated by plagioclase; in the latter stages of activity biotite dominates over pyroxene. The magma features suggest that the magmas underwent large scale mixing.</p><br>
<h2>Debris avalanche</h2><br>
<p>The southern flank of the volcano underwent a collapse, forming a 300 km large landslide deposit in the Salar de Coipasa. The deposit has an inverted T shape and an approximate volume of 6 km, containing various kinds of hummocks. The deposits are little hydrothermally altered but contain prismatically joined blocks, suggesting that the collapse was precipitated by seismic and magmatic activity and not by hydrothermal weakening of the rock. The avalanche deposit contains Toreva blocks and is covered by carbonate deposits, suggesting that it entered the salar when it was still a lake. Radiocarbon analysis of the avalanche deposits suggest that the edifice collapse occurred between 6000 and 16000 years ago, 12000 being suggested by the height of the carbonate deposits that match the Tauca stage of Coipasa lake evolution.</p><br>
<h2>Activity</h2><br>
<p>A small active fumarole was observed on the summit of Tata Sabaya in 1995.</p><br>
<p>Apulon  was a Dacian fortress city close to modern Alba Iulia, Romania from where the Latin name of Apulum is derived. The exact location is believed by many archaeologists to be the Dacian fortifications on top of Piatra Craivii, Craiva, Cricău, about 20 km north of Alba-Iulia.</p><br>
<p>Apulon was an important Dacian political, economic and social center, the capital of the Apuli tribe. It was first mentioned by the Ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy in his Geographia, under the name Apulon. It is also depicted in the Tabula Peutingeriana as an important city named Apula, at the cross road of two main routes: one coming from Blandiana, the other from Acidava. The two roads merge at Apula, with the next stop on the route being Brucla.</p><br>
<p>After the southern part of Dacia became a province of the Roman Empire, the capital of the Dacia Apulensis district was established here, and the city was known as Apulum. Apulum was one of the largest centers in Roman Dacia and the seat of the XIII Gemina Legion. The castra at Apulum is the largest in Romania, occupying 37,5 ha (750 x 500 m).</p><br>
<p>Pomerape is a stratovolcano lying on the border of northern Chile and Bolivia . It is part of the Payachata complex of volcanoes, together with Parinacota Volcano to the south. The name "Payachata" means "twins" and refers to their appearance. It hosts glaciers down to elevations of 5300-5,800 m, lower on the northern slope.</p><br>
<p>Pomerape is a complex of lava domes, accompanied by lava flows. It was active about 200,000 years ago. The lava domes formed first and were later buried by the actual volcanic cone, which unlike the rhyolitic-dacitic domes is formed by hornblende andesite. The "Chungará Andesites" and lava dome complex of Parinacota were laid down at this time. Pomerape is associated with an adventive vent that has erupted mafic magmas. The main cone was last active 106,000 +- 7,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Climbing the volcano is alpine grade AD, sometimes on 50+ degree snow/rubble slope. A camp can be established at 5,300 m at the saddle between Parinacota and Pomerape. Depending on the season, the main difficulty can be penitentes (tall ice-blade needles), which make the ascent physically difficult or impossible.</p><br>
<p>Nea Kios , is a village and former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 5.700 km. It was founded by refugees from Cius in Bithynia after the expulsion of the Greeks from Asia Minor.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Nea Kios is situated in a plain on the coast of the Argolic Gulf, at the mouth of the river Inachos. It is 4 km northwest of Myloi, 6 km south of Argos and 6 km northwest of Nafplio.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Town partnerships</h2><br>
<p>Nea Kios fosters partnerships with the following places:</p><br>
<p>Meddersheim, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany</p><br>
<p>The New Georgia Campaign was a series of land and naval battles of the Pacific campaign of World War II between Allied forces and the Empire of Japan. It was part of Operation Cartwheel, the Allied strategy in the South Pacific. The campaign took place in the New Georgia group of islands, in the central Solomon Islands from 20 June through 7 October 1943.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The Japanese had captured New Georgia in 1942 and built an airbase at Munda Point which began operations in December 1942 to support the Guadalcanal offensives. As it became clear at the end of 1942 that they could not hold Guadalcanal, the Japanese commanders guessed that the Allies would move toward the Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain, and that the central Solomon Islands were logical steps on the way.</p><br>
<p>The Imperial Japanese Army believed that holding the Solomon Islands would be ultimately unsuccessful and that it would be better to wait for an Allied attack on Bougainville which would be much less costly to supply and reinforce. The Imperial Japanese Navy preferred to delay the Allied advance for as long as possible by maintaining a distant line of defence. With no effective central command, the two Japanese services implemented their own plans: the navy assumed responsibility for the defence of the central Solomons and the army for the northern Solomons.</p><br>
<p>In early 1943, Japanese defenses were prepared against possible Allied landings on New Georgia, Kolombangara and Santa Isabel. By June 1943, there were 10,500 troops on New Georgia and 9,000 on Kolombangara, all under the command of General Minoru (Noboru) Sasaki, well dug in and waiting for an Allied attack.</p><br>
<h2>Allied planning</h2><br>
<h3>Choice of New Georgia</h3><br>
<p>By early 1943, some Allied leaders had wanted to focus on capturing Rabaul, but Japanese strength there and lack of landing craft meant that such an operation was not practical in 1943. Instead, on the initiative of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, a plan known as Operation Cartwheel was developed, which proposed to envelop and cut off Rabaul without capturing it, by simultaneous offensives in the Territory of New Guinea and northward through the Solomon Islands.</p><br>
<p>The Allied base at Guadalcanal continued to suffer from Japanese bombing raids even after the island was declared secured on 9 February 1943. The Japanese airfield at Munda made these raids easier by giving Japanese planes a convenient place to refuel on the way to and from their main base at Rabaul. The Allies attempted to neutralize Munda with repeated bombing raids and naval shelling, but the Japanese were always able to repair the airfield in short order. The Allied command thus determined that Munda had to be captured by ground troops. Since the New Georgias lay within the South Pacific Area, the operation would be the responsibility of Admiral William F. Halsey, headquartered at Nouméa on New Caledonia.</p><br>
<h3>Capture of the Russells</h3><br>
<p>The Russell Island group, lying between Guadalcanal and the New Georgia group, had served as a troop staging base for the Japanese during the fight for Guadalcanal, and Admiral Halsey, Commander South Pacific Force (renamed US Third Fleet on 15 March 1943), determined to capture it in preparation for the main action in the New Georgias. In early February, he instructed Rear Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner, formerly his Deputy Commander and now his Commander Amphibious Force, to undertake Operation Cleanslate.</p><br>
<p>Beginning 21 February, Admiral Turner landed the 43rd Infantry Division (Army) under Maj. Gen. John H. Hester and the 3rd Marine Raider Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel Harry B. "Harry the Horse" Liversedge on the Russells, a total of approximately 9,000 troops and their equipment. These landings were totally unopposed because, unbeknownst to the Allies, the Japanese had evacuated the Russells soon after leaving Guadalcanal. In fact, the men landing on nearby Banika Island were greeted by two coastwatchers with the offer of a cup of tea.</p><br>
<h3>Preliminaries to the New Georgia landings</h3><br>
<p>Alarmed that the Allies were working their way up the Solomons chain, the Japanese bombed the new American base in the Russells and began strengthening their own airfields at Munda and at nearby Vila on Kolombangara Island. In their turn, the Americans continued attempting to subdue Munda field with naval shellings of dubious effectiveness. During the course of one of these overnight bombardment sorties, on the night of 6–7 March 1943, an American force consisting of three light cruisers and three destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral A. Stanton "Tip" Merrill encountered the Japanese destroyers Murasame and Minegumo as they were returning up Kula Gulf from delivering food and supplies to the garrison at Vila. In the ensuing action, known as the Battle of Blackett Strait, both Japanese destroyers were sunk.</p><br>
<p>The Americans next attempted to interdict the Japanese supply lanes by mining the ocean approaches to Vila and Munda. This proved as ineffective as bombardment had been, since the Japanese were able to sweep up the mines readily.</p><br>
<p>The Allies had plenty of time to plan Operation Toenails, as the invasion of the New Georgias was called. The plan called for simultaneous landings on 30 June at four places. From southeast to northwest, these were: (1) Wickham Anchorage on the southeast coast of Vangunu Island; (2) Segi Point on the southeastern tip of New Georgia; (3) Viru Harbor on the southwest coast of New Georgia, just a few miles up from Segi; and (4) Rendova Harbor on Rendova Island just across Blanche Channel from Munda, placing the latter Japanese base well within range of land-based artillery.</p><br>
<p>During the entire New Georgia Campaign, the resolution and resourcefulness of the British Commonwealth coastwatchers proved invaluable to the Allied cause. District Officer Donald Gilbert Kennedy, a New Zealander, set the tone in a message he had had delivered to every native village when occupation by the Japanese was imminent: "These islands are British and they are to remain British. The government is not leaving. Even if the Japanese come, we shall stay with you and in the end they will be driven out." In the event, it was the prospect of District Officer Kennedy being killed or captured that led Admiral Turner to move up the first Allied landings by nine days. He sent two companies of the 4th Marine Raider Battalion to capture Segi Point on the morning of 21 June, where Kennedy and his native comrades were rescued.</p><br>
<h2>Conquest of New Georgia island</h2><br>
<h3>Main landings: 30 June – 2 July</h3><br>
<p>A force consisting of portions of the 4th Marine Raider Battalion and of the 103rd Infantry Regiment (Army) landed at Oloana Bay on the south coast of Vangunu Island. From there they marched overland to Vura village which overlooked Wickham Anchorage, the first of the objectives of the original plan. By 12 July, Vura was secured and garrisoned.</p><br>
<p>A force also consisting of portions of the 4th Marine Raider Battalion and portions of the 103rd Infantry Regiment (Army) landed at Viru Harbor, the third of the original plan&#39;s objectives. The Japanese were driven off and by 9 July the area was secured and garrisoned.</p><br>
<p>The landings in the area around Munda were obviously the most important of the four. Admiral Turner personally commanded this portion of the invasion fleet from his flagship, the attack transport McCawley, which after being damaged by a Japanese air-launched torpedo that afternoon, was mistakenly sunk by an American PT boat that night. The 172nd Infantry Regiment (Army) landed at Rendova Harbor while Companies A and B of the 169th Infantry Regiment along with a commando unit of 130 South Pacific islanders took three vitally placed islets in Blanche Channel. These were to provide staging areas for the main event, the siege of Munda, the ultimate goal that eventually would prove far more arduous to attain than anticipated.</p><br>
<p>On 2 July, the Americans were ready to make a landing in the Munda area. Laiana beach was closest, being only two miles from Munda, but as it was heavily defended, it was rejected in favor of Zanana beach, more than three miles farther east. Zanana would prove to be an unfortunate choice.</p><br>
<h3>Landings in Kula Gulf</h3><br>
<p>Halsey&#39;s counterparts at Rabaul, Vice Admiral Jinichi Kusaka and Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura, had no intention of allowing New Georgia to fall the way Guadalcanal had. They loaded 4,000 troops on destroyers, brought them down The Slot on the night of 4–5 July and landed them at Vila on the southeast coast of Kolombangara Island. From there, the men would be ferried across Kula Gulf on barges to Bairoko on the northwest coast of New Georgia, from where they would follow the eight-mile jungle trail to Munda.</p><br>
<p>The Allies also carried out an amphibious operation in Kula Gulf that night. Admiral Halsey had dispatched transports carrying 4,600 troops under Colonel Liversedge to Rice Anchorage on the northwest coast of New Georgia. Covering these troopships was a force of three light cruisers and four destroyers commanded by Rear Admiral Walden L. "Pug" Ainsworth. One of Ainsworth’s destroyers, the Strong, was torpedoed and sunk by the Japanese as the latter were retiring up the Gulf from their reinforcement mission to Vila.</p><br>
<p>Liversedge&#39;s men were tasked with moving down the coast and capturing Bairoko, thereby interdicting the trailhead used by the Japanese to reinforce Munda. They were successfully landed at dawn, but were only able to advance 5 mi through the heavy jungle the first day. After three days, they had covered 7 mi.</p><br>
<p>The night (5–6 July) after the Kula Gulf landings, the opposing naval forces engaged in a full-scale battle in the waters northeast of Kolombangara Island, an action that came to be called the Battle of Kula Gulf. The Americans lost the light cruiser Helena while the Japanese lost two destroyers, Niizuki and Nagatsuki, as well as Rear Admiral Teruo Akiyama.</p><br>
<h3>Debacle at Munda</h3><br>
<p>The Army troops&#39; advance from Zanana to Munda was completely stymied. General Hester tried to break the stalemate by sending the 172nd Infantry Regiment around to the north to take the Japanese position in the rear, while the 169th Infantry would continue the frontal assault. Historian Samuel Eliot Morison had this to say about the decision:</p><br>
<p>This was perhaps the worst blunder in the most unintelligently waged land campaign of the Pacific war (with the possible exception of Okinawa). Laiana should have been chosen as the initial beachhead; if it was now required, the 172nd should have been withdrawn from Zanana and landed at Laiana under naval gunfire and air support. Or Hester might have made the landing with his reserves then waiting at Rendova. As it was, General Sasaki interpreted the move correctly and by nightfall had brought both advances to a standstill.</p><br>
<p>The American ground troops on New Georgia were thus halted in both the north and the south. The Japanese brought reinforcements over by barge from Vila to Bairoko, and 1,200 more troops were loaded onto four destroyer-transports at Rabaul and sent down to be landed at Vila on the night of 12–13 July. These ships were escorted by a light cruiser and five destroyers. Admiral Ainsworth was sent to intercept this flotilla with three light cruisers and ten destroyers. He encountered the Japanese force in The Slot in the waters north of Kolombangara Island. The ensuing Battle of Kolombangara resulted in the sinking of the American destroyer Gwin, the Japanese light cruiser Jintsu, and the death of Rear Admiral Shunji Izaki.</p><br>
<h3>Changes in command and the capture of Munda</h3><br>
<p>Major General Oscar W. Griswold, commander XIV Army Corps and General Hester’s immediate superior, visited New Georgia to assess the situation and determined that it was indeed dire. He radioed that at least another division was needed to break the stalemate. At Nouméa, Admiral Halsey had had no conception of how bad things were. He sent Lieutenant General Millard F. Harmon, USAAF, to the front to straighten the matter out. Harmon thoroughly investigated the situation on New Georgia and gave field command to Griswold so that Hester could concentrate on leading his own division. (A long-anticipated change in naval command took place at the same time, when Rear Admiral Theodore Stark Wilkinson took over leadership of the amphibious forces from Admiral Turner on 15 July.)</p><br>
<p>General Sasaki took advantage of the disorder on the American side. Samuel Eliot Morison described it this way:</p><br>
<p>Darkness came to the jungle like the click of a camera shutter. Then the Japanese crept close to the American lines. They attacked with bloodcurdling screams, plastered bivouacs with artillery and mortar barrages, crawled silently into American foxholes and stabbed or strangled the occupants. Often they cursed loudly in English, rattled their equipment, named the American commanding officers and dared the Americans to fight, reminding them that they were “not in the Louisiana maneuvers now.” For sick and hungry soldiers who had fought all day, this unholy shivaree was terrifying. They shot at everything in sight – fox fire on rotting stumps, land crabs clattering over rocks, even comrades.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese learned to apply close assault tactics to American tanks, rendering armor even less effective in the jungle than usual. On the night of 17 July, the Japanese actually succeeded in overrunning the command post of the 43rd Division near Zanana. Eventually, however, Sasaki’s troops became sick and exhausted; also, he had lost communications with Rabaul. He ordered a retreat from the Munda area on 3 August. General Griswold had his men sweep around Munda to the northwest and on 5 August plastered the remaining Japanese with artillery fire. That day, the Americans moved unopposed into Munda, finally achieving the campaign’s most important goal.</p><br>
<h3>Capture of Bairoko</h3><br>
<p>On the northern front, Colonel Liversedge had been reinforced by 700 Marines and made plans to capture Bairoko village, which sits on the eastern side of Bairoko Harbor, on 20 July. His Army detachment was to attack the village from the southeast while his Marines converged from the northeast, a classic pincer movement. The Japanese defensive positions were so well designed, however, that neither force could make progress, and casualties began to mount. Just before dawn on 22 July, Liversedge called for air strikes to cover his withdrawal. Perhaps with a view to compensating for failures in land-based air cover following previous such requests, what followed was the heaviest aerial bombardment of the campaign so far.</p><br>
<p>On the night of 1–2 August, while patrolling Blackett Strait west of Kolombangara, PT 109 was cut in two and sunk by destroyer Amagiri. The boat&#39;s commander was Lieutenant John F. Kennedy.</p><br>
<p>Beginning 3 August, Liversedge tried again, first establishing a battalion of the 148th Infantry at a blocking position on the Munda trail. Two days later he relieved these men with a combined Army/Marine force and moved the 148th to a dominant position overlooking the entire area. On 10 August Liversedge picked up another battalion of GIs and renewed the direct attack on Bairoko. After two more grueling weeks, the Americans entered Bairoko unopposed on 24 August.</p><br>
<h3>Securing New Georgia</h3><br>
<p>Admiral Kusaka and General Imamura at Rabaul made a final, disastrous attempt to bring reinforcements to General Sasaki. Under the protection of a single destroyer, 940 troops and 700 naval personnel were loaded aboard three destroyer-transports and sent down under the command of Rear Admiral Kaju Sugiura to Kolombangara on the night of 6–7 August. Admiral Wilkinson, thinking such a movement likely on that night, sent a force of six destroyers under Commander Frederick Moosbrugger to intercept them. The American destroyer sailors were jubilant that at last they would be free of the combat doctrine that required them to stick close to the cruisers; on this night, they would be able to apply their own tactics. In the resulting Battle of Vella Gulf, fought in the waters northwest of Kolombangara, the American destroyers took the Japanese completely by surprise. The three ships carrying passengers, Arashi, Hagikaze, and Kawakaze, were torpedoed and sunk, and the escort ship, Shigure, did not linger to search for survivors.</p><br>
<p>Following this major reversal, General Sasaki moved his headquarters to Kolombangara on 8–9 August, leaving behind a token force to defend the west coast of New Georgia. His mission now was simply to hold the remaining islands of the New Georgia group as long as possible, giving the Japanese a chance to reinforce the northern Solomons. US Army forces moved along the west coast of New Georgia, wiping out the 200 Japanese remaining in the Zieta area, and capturing the islet of Baanga to silence the enemy artillery there by 20 August. Under the noses of U.S. patrols, the last Japanese troops on New Georgia were barged from Bairoko Harbor over to Kolombangara on the night of 23 August. This marked the end of ground combat on New Georgia.</p><br>
<h2>Outlying islands</h2><br>
<h3>Arundel</h3><br>
<p>General Sasaki played his delaying role to the hilt. When the US 172nd Infantry landed on Arundel Island, just west of New Georgia, on 27 August, he allowed them to come ashore unopposed and establish a beachhead. Just as the Americans were feeling the occupation would be easy, Sasaki counterattacked in multiple places, tying the Americans down and forcing them to call for reinforcements. He carried out a particularly determined attack on 15 September, bringing the whole Allied effort on Arundel to a halt, and with far fewer troops than his opponents. General Griswold ordered a full-scale effort, including Marine Corps tanks, to drive the Japanese off the island. After vicious fighting on 17 & 18 September, the Japanese abandoned Arundel for good on the night of 20–21 September.</p><br>
<h3>Vella Lavella</h3><br>
<p>Admiral Halsey had earlier seen the wisdom of bypassing the heavily fortified island of Kolombangara and invading Vella Lavella instead, the latter island lying closer to Bougainville and Rabaul and being less well defended. Thus, a month before New Georgia was secured, a reconnaissance party was landed on Vella Lavella to gain information about Japanese strength and dispositions as well as about suitable landing sites. These men and their native guides managed to explore the island for a full week, completely avoiding contact with the Japanese. On 31 July, they returned to Guadalcanal with thorough intelligence about the target. The village of Barakoma near the island’s southeastern tip was selected as the landing place.</p><br>
<p>The invasion force consisted of seven destroyer-transports, three LSTs, two submarine chasers and twelve destroyers under the personal command of Admiral Wilkinson aboard one of the destroyers. Embarked were about 6,500 ground troops led by Major General Robert B. McClure. Japanese planes attacked multiple Allied bases on the night of 14 August, but completely missed this fleet headed for Vella Lavella. The next morning, disembarkation began at Barakoma.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese high command in Tokyo had already decided that no more troops would be wasted in the central Solomons. Rather than reinforce and defend Vella Lavella, it was to be used merely as a way station for the evacuation of the troops on Kolombangara that had been bypassed by the Allies with this new landing. Horaniu on the northeast coast was selected as a barge staging point and on the night of 17–18 August two Army companies and a Navy platoon were landed there. The covering force of four destroyers was met in The Slot by an American force, also made up of four destroyers under Captain Thomas J. Ryan, that had been sent to disrupt the operation. In the ensuing Battle off Horaniu, no ships of either side were lost and the Japanese succeeded in establishing a barge base.</p><br>
<p>The Allies decided to squeeze the remaining enemy ground forces on Vella Lavella into a pocket in the northwest corner of the island and wipe them out. The 3rd New Zealand Division, under the command of Major General Harold E. Barrowclough, was given this assignment. The New Zealanders began their pincer movement on 21 September, but the Japanese resisted so fiercely that it took until 5–6 October to bottle them up.</p><br>
<p>On the night of 6–7 October, Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin led a force consisting of three destroyer-transports and twelve small craft to take the 600 remaining ground troops off Vella Lavella. Ijuin personally commanded a group of six destroyers sent to cover the operation from American naval interference. Admiral Wilkinson hurriedly rerouted two groups of three destroyers each to attempt to disrupt the evacuation. Only the first group, under the command of Captain Frank R. Walker, arrived in time to engage in combat. In the resulting naval battle, the US destroyer Chevalier and the Japanese destroyer Yugumo were lost. Ijuin succeeded in keeping the American ships from interfering in the evacuation. As a result, General Barrowclough’s men entered the evacuated area unopposed. The New Georgia Campaign was complete.</p><br>
<p>Fort Saint-Frédéric was a French fort built on Lake Champlain to secure the region against British colonization and control the lake. It was located in modern New York State across the lake from modern Vermont at the town of Crown Point, New York. The fort, whose construction began in 1734, was never attacked, and was destroyed in 1759 before the advance of a large  British army under General Jeffery Amherst.</p><br>
<p>The British constructed the much larger Fort Crown Point next to the ruins of Saint-Frédéric; the new fort also never came under attack. Its small garrison was captured in 1775 in the early days of the American Revolutionary War, after which Fort Crown Point also fell into ruin. The fort sites at Crown Point were preserved in the Crown Point State Historic Site in 1910, and both ruins are National Historic Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction was started in 1734 by Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry. When complete, Fort Saint-Frédéric walls were twelve feet thick and four stories high, with cannons on each level. It was manned by hundreds of officers and troops, principally from Les Compagnies Franches de la Marine.</p><br>
<p>The fort gave the French control of the frontier between New France and the British colonies to the south. As the only permanent stronghold in the area until the building of Fort Carillon at Ticonderoga starting in 1755, many French raids originated there and it was a target of British operations in the French and Indian War. Constructed on the tip of a strategic peninsula at a narrows in the lake, the cannons of Fort Saint-Frédéric and the later British Fort Crown Point were capable of halting all north-south travel on the lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1759 when British forces moved against Fort Saint-Frédéric during the war, the retreating French destroyed it. The British Army and provincial militia then built Fort Crown Point, a vast fortification just southwest of the ruins of the French fort, starting in the fall of 1759. At the same time they built a fleet to gain military control of Lake Champlain and the 77-mile-long Crown Point Road across the Green Mountains to reach the Connecticut River.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Since 1910 the remains of both forts on the Crown Point peninsula are part of the Crown Point State Historic Site. Both are also USA National Historic Landmarks. Fort Saint-Frédéric was registered as a National Historic Landmark in 1962.</p><br>
<p>The Blue Lake is a large monomictic crater lake located in a dormant volcanic maar associated with the Mount Gambier maar complex. The lake is situated near in the Limestone Coast region of South Australia and is one of four crater lakes on Mount Gambier maar. Of the four lakes, only two remain, as the other two  have dried up over the past 30 to 40 years as the water table has dropped.</p><br>
<p>Conflicting dates have been estimated for its last eruption, of 4,300 years ago, of 28,000 years ago, and, most recently, a little before 6,000 years ago. If the youngest date is correct, this could be the most recent volcanic eruption on the Australian mainland.</p><br>
<p>Blue Lake is thought to be of an average depth of 72 m, but in places reaches 75 m deep. The crater rim measures 1,200 m by 824 m, however, the lake itself measures 1,087 m by 657 m. The bottom of the lake is 30 m below the level of the main street of the nearby town. The Blue Lake supplies the town with drinking water, providing approximately 3,500 ML per year from its 36,000 ML store.</p><br>
<h2>Studies</h2><br>
<p>Bathymetric surveys located the deepest point in the lake at 77 m in 1967. Major diving exploration of the lake first occurred in 1985. Cave diver Peter Horne conducted temperature and visibility studies and made discoveries of a fresh water sponge species and other invertebrates. This exploration also discovered "The Stromatolite Field", a collection of hollow rock formations that are found along the north-eastern perimeter down to a depth of 40 m. In 2008, permission was granted by SA Water for another diving exploration of the central and deepest parts of the lake. On this dive core samples from the calcite-silt covered lake bed were collected where water temperature drops to 14 &deg;C.</p><br>
<h2>Mechanism of colour change</h2><br>
<p>During December to March, the lake turns to a vibrant cobalt blue colour, returning to a colder steel grey colour for April to November. The exact cause of this phenomenon is still a matter of conjecture, but it is generally considered likely that it revolves around the warming of the surface layers of the lake during the summer months to around 20 &deg;C, causing calcium carbonate to precipitate out of solution and enabling micro-crystallites of calcium carbonate to form. This results in scatter of the blue wavelengths of sunlight. During winter the lake becomes well mixed, and recent research indicates that during this phase of the colour cycle the lake is somewhat murkier due to the redistribution of tannins and calcium carbonate particles throughout the lake. Solar elevation has also been found to influence the perceived colour of the lake. The movement of planktonic life-forms within the lake during the seasons and during the day may additionally play a part in the colour change.</p><br>
<h2>Gordon's Leap</h2><br>
<p>In July 1865 Adam Lindsay Gordon performed the daring riding feat known as Gordon’s Leap on the edge of the Blue Lake. A commemorative obelisk erected there has an inscription which reads:</p><br>
<p>This obelisk was erected as a memorial to the famous Australian poet. From near this spot in July, 1865 Gordon made his famed leap on horseback over an old post and rail guard fence onto a narrow ledge overlooking the Blue Lake and jumped back again onto the roadway. The foundation stone of the Gordon Memorial Obelisk was laid on 8th July 1887</p><br>
<p>Mount Gambier Blue Lake2.jpgThe lake in early March with the original pumping station in the foreground.</p><br>
<p>Adam Lindsay Gordon obelisk.jpgThe Adam Lindsay Gordon obelisk at the Blue Lake.</p><br>
<p>The Nimitz Glacier is an Antarctic glacier, 64 km  long and 8 km  wide, draining the area about 16 km  west of the Vinson Massif and flowing southeast between the Sentinel Range and Bastien Range to enter Minnesota Glacier, in the central Ellsworth Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Discovered by USN Squadron VX-6 on photographic flights of December 14-December 15, 1959, and mapped by United States Geological Survey from these photos. Named by US-ACAN for Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, USN, who as Chief of Naval Operations at the time of Operation Highjump, 1947–1948, made possible that unprecedentedly large and complex Antarctic expedition.</p><br>
<h2>Tributary glaciers</h2><br>
<p>* Karasura Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Branscomb Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Cairns Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Tulaczyk Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Zapol Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Donnellan Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Gildea Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Bender Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Sirma Glacier</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>* https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vinson-Map.jpg Vinson Massif. Scale 1:250 000 topographic map. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.</p><br>
<p>* D. Gildea and C. Rada. Vinson Massif and the Sentinel Range. Scale 1:50 000 topographic map. Omega Foundation, 2007.</p><br>
<p>The Dater Glacier is a steep valley glacier in Antarctica, 24 mi long and from 1 to 3 mi wide, flowing northeast in a sinuous course from the eastern slopes of the Vinson Massif between Sullivan Heights and Veregava Ridge to Rutford Ice Stream which borders the eastern flank of the Sentinel Range, Ellsworth Mountains. At the lower end the Dater Glacier coalesces with the terminus of the Ellen Glacier, the two emerging from the Sentinel Range as one stream just north of the Flowers Hills.</p><br>
<p>The glacier was discovered by U.S. Navy Squadron VX-6 on photographic flights of December 14–15, 1959, and mapped from these photographs by the United States Geological Survey. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Henry M. Dater, a historian on the staff of the U.S. Antarctic Projects Officer and the U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica.</p><br>
<h2>Tributary glaciers</h2><br>
<p>* Hansen Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Berisad Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Orizari Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Hinkley Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Strinava Glacier</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>* Vinson Massif. Scale 1:250 000 topographic map. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.</p><br>
<p>The Ellen Glacier is a glacier in the central Sentinel Range of the Ellsworth Mountains of Antarctica. It drains the eastern slopes of Mount Anderson and Long Gables and flows generally southeast for 22 mi to Barnes Ridge, where it leaves the range and enters the south flowing Rutford Ice Stream.</p><br>
<p>It was first mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos, 1957–59, and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Lieutenant Colonel Cicero J. Ellen of the U.S. Air Force, who was in command of many of the air operations when the South Pole Station was established by air drop in the 1956–57 season.</p><br>
<h2>Tributary glaciers</h2><br>
<p>* Pulpudeva Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Crosswell Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Patton Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Rumyana Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Delyo Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Burdenis Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Gerila Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Fonfon Glacier</p><br>
<p>* Arapya Glacier</p><br>
<p>Mount Craddock is a large, bold mountain forming the south extremity of Craddock Massif in Sentinel Range, the highest mountain in Antarctica. It is linked by Karnare Col to Mount Strybing in the southern Sentinel Range. The ninth-highest mountain in Antarctica was first climbed in January 1992.</p><br>
<p>The name Mount Craddock was originally recommended by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1965 for the present-day Craddock Massif but subsequent maps limited Mount Craddock to the massif&#39;s southernmost peak, a position that became established over years. To avoid confusion and to fix the position of the name, US-ACAN redefined Mount Craddock in 2006 to apply to the southernmost peak described above.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was named by US-ACAN for J. Campbell Craddock (1930–2006), leader of a University of Minnesota expedition (1962–63) that made geological investigations and cartographic surveys in the Sentinel and Heritage Ranges of the Ellsworth Mountains. During 1960–61, Craddock led a Minnesota geological expedition in examining the Jones Mountains.</p><br>
<p>Mount Craddock is the second-highest point of the Craddock Massif which includes Mount Rutford (highest point), Rada Peak, and Bugueño Pinnacle. Rutford was named for R. H. Rutford, Antarctic geologist and colleague of Craddock. Rada Peak and Bugueño Pinnacle were named for Camilo Rada and Manuel Bugueño, climbing partners of Damien Gildea, a leading Antarctic researcher and climber.</p><br>
<h2>Maps</h2><br>
<p>Scale 1:250 000 topographic map. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey, 1988.</p><br>
<p>D. Gildea and C. Rada. Vinson Massif and the Sentinel Range. Scale 1:50 000 topographic map. Omega Foundation, 2007.</p><br>
<p>Gosaikunda , also spelled Gosainkunda and Gosain Kunda is an alpine freshwater oligotrophic lake in Nepal&#39;s Langtang National Park, located at an altitude of 4,380 m in the Rasuwa District with a surface of 13.8 hectare. Together with associated lakes, the Gosaikunda Lake complex is 1,030 hectare in size and has been designated a Ramsar site on 29 September 2007.</p><br>
<p>The lake melts and sips down to form the Trishuli River and remains frozen for six months in winter October to June. There are 108 lakes in this area, small to medium in size. The challenging Lauribina La at an altitude of 4,610 m is on its outskirts.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<p>The Gosaikunda area has been delineated as a religious site. Hindu mythology attributes Gosaikunda as the abode of the Hindu deities Shiva and Gauri. The Hindu scriptures Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata refer to Samudra manthan, which is directly related to the origin of Gosaikunda. Its waters are considered holy and of particular significance during the Gangadashahara and the Janai Purnima festivals when thousands of pilgrims from Nepal and India visit the area.</p><br>
<p>Gosaikunda is believed to have been created by Lord Shiva when he thrust his Trishul (holy Trident) into a mountain to extract water so that he could cool his stinging throat after he had swallowed poison.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and trekking</h2><br>
<p>Gosaikunda is a significant place of interest on the Dhunche-Helambu trekking route. This trek adjoins the famous Langtang Valley trek in the same district. Both treks can be combined. Basic accommodation is quite easily available. Tea houses offer a variety of food and snacks.</p><br>
<p>The trek to Gosaikunda starts in Dhunche Village or Syabru Besi in the Langtang Himal, or in Sundarijal in the Kathmandu Valley.</p><br>
<p>When starting from Dhunche, the first day involves a long steady climb to reach Chandan Bari at an altitude of about 3,200 m. Laurebinayak at about 3,700 m can be reached on the second day. At this point, some trekkers choose to climb ahead to Gosaikunda, though altitude sickness is a concern as the ascent is rather steep. Many trekkers choose to stay at Laurebinayak, which also provides sunset and sunrise views of the Langtang and Ganesh Himal. The descent from Gosaikund to Sundarijal (सुन्दरीजल) takes about four days and involves a short climb to Laurebina La at 4,610 m, a rapid descent to Phedi and onwards to Ghopte. Depending on pace, there are options to stay at Thadepati, Mangengoth, Kutumsang and at many villages farther downhill. The trails are well marked, except between Ghopte and Thadepati.</p><br>
<p>The High Tauern  are a mountain range on the main chain of the Central Eastern Alps, comprising the highest peaks east of the Brenner Pass. The crest forms the southern border of the Austrian state of Salzburg with Carinthia and East Tyrol, while a small part in the southwest belongs to the Italian province of South Tyrol. The range includes Austria&#39;s highest mountain, the Grossglockner at 3,798 m above the Adriatic.</p><br>
<p>In the east, the range is adjoined by the Lower Tauern. For the etymology of the name, see Tauern.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>According to the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps, the range is bounded by the Salzach valley to the north (separating it from the Kitzbühel Alps), the Mur valley and the Murtörl Pass to the east (separating it from the Lower Tauern), the Drava valley to the south (separating it from the Southern Limestone Alps), and the Birnlücke Pass to the west (separating it from the Zillertal Alps).</p><br>
<p>Its most important subgroups along the Alpine crest are (from West to East):</p><br>
<p>Venediger Group (including Grossvenediger, 3,666 m, and Lasörling, 3,098 m)</p><br>
<p>Granatspitze Group (Großer Muntanitz, 3,232 m, and Granatspitze, 3,086 m)</p><br>
<p>Glockner Group (Grossglockner, 3,798 m)</p><br>
<p>Goldberg Group (Hoher Sonnblick, 3,106 m)</p><br>
<p>Ankogel Group (Hochalmspitze, 3,360 m, Ankogel, 3,246 m) and Reisseck Group (Reisseck, 2,965 m)</p><br>
<p>The eastern end of the High Tauern is formed by the Hafner massif of the Ankogel Group, which includes the easternmost three-thousander peaks in the Alpine chain.</p><br>
<p>Further parts of the High Tauern south of the main crest of the Alps are (from West to East):</p><br>
<p>Rieserferner Group (Hochgall, 3,436 m)</p><br>
<p>Villgraten Mountains (Weiße Spitze, 2,962 m)</p><br>
<p>Schober Group (including the Petzeck, 3,283 m and Hochschober, 3,240 m)</p><br>
<p>Kreuzeck Group (Mölltaler Polinik, 2,784 m)</p><br>
<h2>High Tauern National Park</h2><br>
<p>Along 100 km of the main chain stretches the High Tauern National Park (Nationalpark Hohe Tauern), to which the Austrian Alpine Club as freeholder and the three states of Carinthia, Salzburg and Tyrol have contributed territory. With an area of about 1,834 km&sup2, it is by far the largest of Austria&#39;s seven national parks as well as the largest nature reserve in the Alps. It is divided into a core zone including the Grossglockner and Grossvenediger massifs, with complete prohibition of agricultural use, and a fringe zone used for forestry and alpine-meadow farming. Five special nature sanctuaries are protected from any human disturbance.</p><br>
<p>The park of the IUCN II category comprises the Pasterze and numerous further glaciers, the Krimml Waterfalls, several glacial valleys and alluvial fans, as well as extended tundra areas and forests. Among the flora of the Alps, especially Swiss Pines grow along the tree line; above subshrub, mainly alpenrose but also the endemic saxifraga rudolphiana, up to nival level at about 2,800 m (9,200 ft). The fauna includes chamois, Alpine ibex and red deer, as well as griffon vulture and the golden eagle. The formerly extinct bearded vulture and the Alpine marmot have been successfully reintroduced.</p><br>
<p>The park was established according to a 1971 declaration signed by the participating states at Heiligenblut, it nevertheless took until 1981, when the first parts around Großglockner and Hochschober in Carinthia were put under protection. The adjacent area in Salzburg followed two years later, and Tyrol finally joined in 1992. Tourism only increased marginally since the creation of the national park, but has become less harmful to the environment. A particular emphasis is put on environmental protection and the maintenance of traditional ways of life in the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The main peaks of the High Tauern are:</p><br>
<h2>Tunnels and passes</h2><br>
<p>The High Tauern are crossed by three tunnels:</p><br>
<p>Tauern Railway Tunnel between Bad Gastein and Mallnitz, finished in 1906</p><br>
<p>Katschberg Tunnel on A10 Tauern Autobahn (European route E55) leading from Sankt Michael im Lungau and the Tauern Road Tunnel to Rennweg</p><br>
<p>Felbertauerntunnel on B108 Felbertauern Straße highway, between Mittersill and Matrei in Osttirol</p><br>
<p>The best-known mountain pass road of the High Tauern is the scenic Grossglockner High Alpine Road inaugurated in 1935, including a tunnel at an elevation of 2,505 m under the Hochtor Pass (2,573 m). East of it, the Katschberg Pass (1,641 m) on B 99 Katschberg Straße highway parallel to the Katschberg Tunnel links Sankt Michael and Rennweg. Another road crosses the Staller Sattel between Sankt Jakob in Defereggen and Rasen-Antholz at 2,052 m.</p><br>
<p>Beside there are numerous bridle and foot paths, in part used since ancient times:</p><br>
<p>The Second Battle of Dover Strait was a naval battle of the First World War, fought in the Dover Strait in April 1917 and should not be confused with the major Battle of Dover Strait in 1916. Two Royal Navy destroyers defeated a superior force of German Kaiserliche Marine torpedo boats </p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>On 20 April 1917, two groups of torpedo boats of the German Navy raided the Dover Strait to bombard Allied positions on shore and to engage warships patrolling the Dover Barrage— the field of floating mines that prevented German ships from getting into the English Channel. Six torpedo boats bombarded Calais and another six bombarded Dover just before midnight.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<p>Two flotilla leaders of the Royal Navy — and — were on patrol near Dover and engaged six of the German ships early on 21 April near the Goodwin Sands. In a confusing action, Swift torpedoed . Broke rammed , and the two ships became locked together. For a while, there was close-quarters fighting between the crews, as the German sailors tried to board the British ship, before Broke got free and G42 sank.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>HMS Swift was slightly damaged, but Broke was heavily damaged and had to be towed back to port. The other 10 German torpedo boats made it back to port without loss.</p><br>
<p>Bird Island is 4.8 km long and 800 m wide, separated from the western end of South Georgia by Bird Sound. It is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom, also claimed by Argentina as part of Tierra del Fuego province.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was discovered in 1775 by a British expedition under James Cook, who so named it "on account of the vast numbers that were upon it".</p><br>
<p>In the late 1950s, the island was the subject of a number of US funded projects. Between 1959-62, a great number of the island&#39;s wandering albatross were ringed, which gave startling data about their range - one bird was found in Australia.</p><br>
<p>The island is currently a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and so there are no landings allowed without permission.</p><br>
<p>The summit of the island, Roché Peak is named after the Englishman Anthony de la Roché who discovered South Georgia in 1675.</p><br>
<p>2008 marked the 50th anniversary of biological research on Bird Island.</p><br>
<h2>Research Station</h2><br>
<p>The island has been a station for Antarctic research since 1963, and is currently a biological research station of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) at Jordan Cove, with three resident biologists and one technician. The main focus of the research is the ecology and population of the island&#39;s seabirds and seals.</p><br>
<p>While the British Magistrate and other civilians and military present in Grytviken were removed from South Georgia during the Argentine occupation of South Georgia in 1982, another 15 Britons remained beyond Argentine reach. The losses suffered at Grytviken prevented Argentina from occupying the rest of the island, with Bird Island base, and field camps at Schlieper Bay, Lyell Glacier and St. Andrews Bay remaining under British control.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to:</p><br>
<p>65,000 Antarctic fur seals (around 1 for every 6 m² of the island)</p><br>
<p>50,000 macaroni penguins</p><br>
<p>15,000 pairs of black-browed albatross</p><br>
<p>12,000 pairs of grey-headed albatross</p><br>
<p>1700 pairs of wandering albatross</p><br>
<p>500 pairs of southern giant petrels (10% of South Georgia&#39;s total)</p><br>
<p>This is in addition to several hundred thousand other birds, including gentoo penguins, South Georgia pintails and South Georgia pipits. Of South Georgia&#39;s 31 breeding species, 27 are found here. Cetaceans such as southern right whales can be seen on their feeding season in Subantarctic regions.</p><br>
<p>The island has always been rat-free, unlike the main island of South Georgia where introduced rats were eradicated between 2010 and 2015.</p><br>
<p>Saunders Island is a crescent-shaped island 8.8 km long, lying between Candlemas Island and Montagu Island in the South Sandwich Islands, a part of the United Kingdom. It is a volcanic island composed of an active stratovolcano, 990 m Mount Michael, . It&#39;s known to have erupted explosively in 1819, and has erupted repeatedly since 2000, most recently in 2005. The 700 m diameter summit crater is thought to possibly contain an active lava lake, one of only a handful in the world.</p><br>
<p>Saunders Island was discovered in 1775 by Captain James Cook, who named it for Sir Charles Saunders, First Lord of the Admiralty. It was charted in greater detail by Bellingshausen in 1819, and in 1930 by DI personnel on the Discovery II. The island was surveyed in 1964 by HMS Protector after whose captain, Captain Martin S. Ollivant, the westernmost point, Ollivant Point, is named.</p><br>
<p>Shackleton sometimes misspells it as "Sanders Island" in his book South.</p><br>
<p>Bristol Island is an 8 km long island lying midway between Montagu Island and Thule Island in the South Sandwich Islands.</p><br>
<p>Its features include Harker Point, Fryer Point, Turmoil Point, Havfruen Peak, Trulla Bluff, Grindle Rock, Wilson Rock, Freezland Rock, Mount Sourabaya, Mount Darnley, and Forsters Passage.</p><br>
<p>Bristol Island is composed of several active volcanoes with eruptions reported in 1823, 1935, 1936, 1950, 1956 and 2016.</p><br>
<p>It is the only land mass on the 59th parallel south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It was discovered by a British expedition under James Cook in 1775 and named in honour of naval officer Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol. The first recorded landing was made by Carl Anton Larsen in 1908.</p><br>
<p>The island remains uninhabited and is administered by the United Kingdom as a British Overseas Territory as part of the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands dependency. Along with the rest of the South Sandwich Islands, it is claimed by Argentina in their South Atlantic Islands Department (Islas del Atlántico Sur) of Tierra del Fuego Province. Argentina did not attempt to occupy the island during the Falklands War.</p><br>
<p>Licancabur is a stratovolcano on the border between Bolivia and Chile, south of the Sairecabur volcano and west of Juriques. Part of the Andean Central Volcanic Zone, it has a prominent, 5,916 m-high cone. A 400 m summit crater containing Licancabur Lake, a crater lake which is among the highest lakes in the world, caps the volcano. Three stages of lava flow emanate from the volcano, which formed on Pleistocene ignimbrites.</p><br>
<p>Licancabur has been active during the Holocene, after the ice ages. Although no historic eruptions of the volcano are known, lava flows extending into Laguna Verde have been dated to 13,240 ± 100 BP. The volcano has primarily erupted andesite, with small amounts of dacite and basaltic andesite.</p><br>
<p>Its climate is cold, dry and very sunny, with high levels of ultraviolet radiation. Licancabur is not covered by glaciers, and vegetation such as cushion plants and shrubs are found lower on its slopes. Chinchillas were formerly hunted on the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Licancabur is considered a holy mountain by the Atacameno people, related to the Cerro Quimal hill in northern Chile. Archeological sites have been found on its slopes and in the summit crater, which was possibly a prehistoric watchtower.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>"Licancabur" derives from the Kunza words used by the Atacameño people to refer to the volcano: lican ("people", or pueblo) and cábur ("mountain"); thus, "mountain of the people".</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>General setting</h3><br>
<p>The Andean Volcanic Belt consists of three main volcanic zones: the Northern Volcanic Zone (from 2° N to 5° S), the Central Volcanic Zone (16° to 28° S) and the Southern Volcanic Zone (33° to 46° S). Active volcanism occurs where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate. The plates are separated by shallower subduction zones, with no present-day volcanism. These shallower zones have been attributed to the high speed of the plate collision, the young age of the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the curvature of the subducting plate. The most plausible theory is that variations in buoyancy of a subducting plate creates a flat subduction zone. The Cocos, Juan Fernandez and Nazca Ridges are associated with such volcanic gaps where they collide with the oceanic trench. The subduction of spreading ridges can also diminish volcanism, as observed in the Chile Rise further south. The buoyancy of these crustal structures may hinder subduction, reducing water supply to the mantle and inducing the formation of melts.</p><br>
<p>Not all volcanism in Chile is relative to subduction of the Nazca Plate; the Chile Ridge exhibits submarine volcanism, and volcanism in the Austral Volcanic Zone is triggered by the Antarctic Plate subducting beneath the South American Plate. One hundred ninety-eight South American volcanoes are on the Global Volcanism Program&#39;s Holocene volcano list.</p><br>
<h3>Local setting</h3><br>
<p>Licancabur is part of the Central Volcanic Zone at the western edge of the Altiplano. Among the regions active volcanoes are Putana (erupted at the end of the 19th century), Llullaillaco (1868) and Lascar (1993). Other stratovolcanoes are Tacora, Nevados de Payachata, Isluga, Tata Sabaya, Ollague, Tocorpuri, Sairecabur and Socompa. The Central Volcanic Zone has more than 1,100 volcanic centres—many older than the Pleistocene, since the areas prevailing arid climate prevented substantial erosion. During the Miocene, the area around Licancabur became the site of major ignimbrite-forming eruptions. Llano de Chajnantor (southeast of Licancabur) is the site of several observatories, including the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is just south of Sairecabur, a group of volcanoes which rises to 19,000 ft and is an apparent source of recent volcanic activity. East of Licancabur is its companion volcano, Juriques. This 5,710 m-high volcano has a large—1.5 km—deep crater and is considered a parasitic cone. West-east alignments of volcanoes like Licancabur and Juriques are common in the region, due to tectonic influences. Araral, Cerro Cabana, Cerro Canapa, Cerros de Tocorpuri, Cerro Linzor, Inacaliri, Inca, Jardin, Putana, Volcan Tatio and Zapaleri are other volcanoes in the neighbourhood of Licancabur. Nineteen kilometres (12 miles) southeast, the volcanic chain continues with Tocol, the Purico Complex and the 6,723 m-high Llullaillaco. Volcanoes in the Puna de Atacama formed during the Pliocene on Tertiary dacite, liparite and rhyolite ignimbrites. These rocks have a light colour, due to the rhyolite. Licancabur was formed over 1.35-million-year-old Purico, La Pacana and Chaxas ignimbrite. The Chaxas ignimbrite erupted 1.09 ± 0.56 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>Licancabur is a 5,916 m-high symmetrical cone. The cone, rising 1,500 m above the surrounding terrain, has a base diameter of 9 km3 and a total volume of 35 km3. The top of the mountain is a 400 m-wide crater, and its slopes have an approximately 30° gradient. The volcano has erupted blocky lava flows, with thicknesses ranging from 50 to 10 m; younger lava flows are thinner. Young lava flows on the western sides of the volcano are 6 km long; older flows extend 15 km. Some old lava flows reach Laguna Verde, and 12 km-long pyroclastic flow deposits have been found. The volcano&#39;s eastern and western flanks look different, since it formed on a basement which dips towards the Salar de Atacama. West of Licancabur are deposits stemming from debris avalanche activity, including blocks 10 m wide. The border between Bolivia and Chile, defined by the Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904), crosses the volcano.</p><br>
<p>An elliptical lake was identified in the Licancabur crater 90 m beneath the crater rim, with a length of 280 ft and a depth of 5 -. Fed by snowfall, it is one of the highest lakes in the world. Based on its relative lack of salt deposits, in 1955 researchers postulated that the lake spilled through a 30 ft notch in the crater&#39;s southwestern rim when the climate was wetter. Excess water now leaves through seepage, keeping salt levels low. There are other lakes (usually frozen) at similar altitudes in the Andes.</p><br>
<p>The slopes of Licancabur are unstable and prone to rock falls. Some of the instability may be due to earthquakes, snow, wind or geothermal effects (resulting in thermal stress), and it frustrated a 1920s attempt by a Chuquicamata engineer to climb the mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Composition</h3><br>
<p>Licancabur has erupted primarily andesite, but basaltic andesite and dacite have also been found. The rocks are dark and grey-coloured. Basaltic andesite was found in the older lavas, and dacite in the more-recent ones. Although the rocks have a seriate texture, the groundmass is hyalopilitic. Phenocrysts include amphibole, clinopyroxene, hornblende, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and titanomagnetite; olivine is found in andesite, and biotite in dacites. Plagioclase is the most common. The amount of phenocrysts in Licancabur&#39;s rocks is smaller than that in other Central Volcanic Zone volcanoes, such as Lascar.</p><br>
<p>Clots of crystals with diameters of 2 - or larger have also been found. They contain glass, microliths and phenocrysts, and have a composition similar to phenocrysts. The clots probably formed from the aggregation of phenocrysts and their subsequent growth; some phenocrysts in the rocks formed when the clots broke apart.</p><br>
<p>The temperature of Licancabur&#39;s pre-eruption magma determined the composition of the rocks; it ranges from 860 to 1060 ± for andesite and 930 ±. Isotope ratios are typical of Central Volcanic Zone volcanoes. There are differences in the elemental composition of andesites and dacites, with the latter resembling adakites more than the former. Antisana (in the Northern Volcanic Zone) and El Negrillar (in the Central Volcanic Zone) are two other centres which have erupted adakites or adakite-like lavas.</p><br>
<p>Based on its composition, it is assumed that the magma at Licancabur formed from the partial melting of the oceanic crust subducted at the Peru-Chile Trench after metamorphosis. This magma melted part of the mantle wedge above the subducting plate, mixing with the melt products. Further contamination by crustal Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite-like rocks from the Archean, crystal fractionation and magma mixing further up in the crust then yielded the Licancabur magmas. The younger lavas may have formed from the mixing of dacite with the magmas forming the older lavas. Some inclusions in Licancabur rocks seem to be from wall rocks of the magma chamber.</p><br>
<p>Xenoliths containing gabbro are also found. Unlike neighbouring volcanoes, such as Saciel at Sairecabur (further north) and Tocol (further south), there appear to be no sulfur deposits on Licancabur.</p><br>
<h2>Climate and ecosystem</h2><br>
<p>The regions climate has been dry since the Tertiary. The area around Licancabur is dominated by year-round high pressure caused by the South Pacific High, giving it a very sunny climate. Because of the lack of moisture, solar radiation energy is dissipated primarily by wind. In the Llano de Chajnantor area, wind generally reaches its maximum strength during the day. Its prevailing direction is from the west, except in summer when winds are more variable. Because of the areas tropical location (where the ozone layer is thinner) and high altitude, it receives a large amount of ultraviolet radiation. The world&#39;s highest level of ultraviolet radiation was reported from Licancabur, although the high irradiation might have caused measurement artifacts.</p><br>
<p>Air temperatures obtained at the lake range from 5 to -40 C. According to observers in 1955, temperatures at the Licancabur summit were always below freezing, sometimes falling below 0 &deg;F. At Llano de Chajnantor, southeast of Licancabur, weather records indicate that maximum temperatures range from -15 to 15 C.</p><br>
<p>Average precipitation on Licancabur is estimated at about 360 mm per year, but snowfall probably exceeded 14 ft in 1955. Snow has been recorded at Llano de Chajnantor when easterly winds transport moisture from the Amazon to the area in summer. Licancabur has no persistent snowpack; snow deposited by storms usually disappears within a few days. In sheltered areas, however, it can persist for months. Licancabur&#39;s present snow line is estimated at 6,190 m.</p><br>
<p>Vegetation at lower altitudes is typical of a high tropical desert climate. Three biozones have been described in the region: an Andean zone from 3850 to 4200 m, with cushion plants and tussock grass; a Puna zone from 3100 to 3800 m, and a pre-Puna zone from 2700 to 3100 m with thorny shrubs. In oases and river valleys of the depression between the pre-Cordillera and the Andes, shrubs such as Atriplex grow; however, the surrounding Atacama Desert is mainly devoid of plant life.</p><br>
<p>Meltwater from snow supports more life, at higher altitudes, on Licancabur than on similar mountains. Grasses, tola bushes, butterflies, flies and lizards are found as high as 16,000 ft. Life further down the mountain could be supported by the fertilizing effect of dust from volcanic rocks. Polylepis incana might have been more prevalent at Licancabur during wetter times, and is now more common in Bolivia. Chinchillas were found as high as 16,000 ft in 1955. The upper parts of the mountain had been avoided by hunters, and after some high-altitude attempts during the 1920s chinchilla hunting disappeared from the area. Licancabur is part of the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Licancabur formed in three units, all of which have lava flows; the last one also includes pyroclastic deposits. The bulk of the cone was formed by the second unit. The second unit&#39;s eruption was preceded by the injection of basic magma into the magma chamber. The oldest flows crop out on the western and northern sides of the volcano and are partially covered by more-recent flows from Licancabur and flows from Sairecabur. Flows from both appear to be pre-glacial. The older lavas have compositions similar to shoshonite and old Sairecabur lavas, and tend to be more basic than recent lavas. Weak explosive activity left pyroclastic deposits on the volcano. Licancabur formed primarily after the late glacial period, between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago. Flank lava flows are its youngest feature. The neighbouring Juriques dates to the Pleistocene.</p><br>
<p>Licancabur&#39;s lava flows were not affected by glaciation, and some have levees and ridges. Lava flows reaching Laguna Verde have been radiocarbon dated to 13,240 ± 100 BP, and the volcano has not erupted during recorded history. Its crater lake may remain liquid due to geothermal heating.</p><br>
<h2>Human settlement</h2><br>
<p>Despite being lower than many neighbouring mountains, Licancabur stands out from other volcanoes in the region and is well-known. The Atacameno people worshiped it, and other high mountains are still considered sacred. Licancabur was considered divine, and attempts to climb it were discouraged and sometimes met by force; climbing it supposedly brought misfortune. It is said that Licancabur would punish people who climbed it, and the volcano is the mate of Quimal in the Cordillera Domeyko; at the solstices, the mountains overshadow one another. According to local myth, this copulation fertilizes the earth. Licancabur is considered "male" and a mountain of fire, in contrast to San Pedro (considered a mountain of water). The was considered divine retribution for an attempt to climb the mountain that year. According to legend, a golden object (most commonly a guanaco) was offered as tribute in the summit crater; human sacrifices have been reported on the volcano.</p><br>
<p>In 1953, climbers found three buildings open on one side on Licancabur. They were built in the pirca style, where stones are fitted together without mortar. A woodpile was found between two of the buildings, which were described as two dwellings and a fireplace. Wood was also scattered around its crater. With the summit&#39;s panoramic view, which includes Calama and pass routes from Argentina, Licancabur may have been a watchtower for the Atacamenos. Its watchtower function may have been coordinated with fortresses in the area such as Lasana, Turi and a settlement identified in 1955 at Quebrada de Chaxas (northwest of the volcano). The settlement at Licancabur had a central courtyard, surrounded by buildings, and ceramics found there resemble these of Pukará de Quitor and Toconao Oriente. A tambo reportedly existed at the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Other archeological findings on Andean mountains were made on Acamarachi and Pular (where ceremonial platforms were found), Cerro Colorado, Juriques, Llullaillaco, Miniques and Quimal. Sites had pirca structures and firewood, and some may have been part of a signaling system. Many were in use during the Inca civilization, and on Quimal artifacts and reports of use during the Spanish Empire have been found. Aconcagua, Coropuna, Chachani, El Plomo, El Toro, Llullaillaco, Mercedario amd Picchu Picchu are other mountains with Inca sanctuaries.</p><br>
<p>The area around Licancabur was first settled by the Atacameno people, presumably because of the water in local canyons. The Incas, under Yawar Waqaq, were followed by the Spanish during the early 16th century in the region; both were looking for yareta and chinchillas.</p><br>
<p>Unlike neighbouring mountains, Licancabur is difficult to climb; its upper part slopes steeply, and the ground is loose and prone to landslides. Rumours about a "staircase", later probably obliterated by landslides and rockfalls, were reported in 1955. In 1953, a road climbed to 14,000 ft. The first recorded ascent of the volcano was in 1884 by Severo Titicocha, who was accompanied by Juan Santelices (a delegate of the Chilean government) in an 1886 ascent.</p><br>
<p>Fort Carroll is a 3.4 acre artificial island and abandoned hexagonal sea fort in the middle of the Patapsco River, just south of Baltimore, Maryland. It is named for Charles Carroll of Carrollton , a signer of the Declaration of Independence.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>In 1847, the State of Maryland gave permission to the United States War Department to construct a fort in the shallow water of Sollers Point Flats to protect the city of Baltimore. Fort Carroll was important for the defense of Baltimore—before the forts construction, Fort McHenry just outside the city was the only military defensive structure between Baltimore and the Chesapeake Bay. The fort was part of the "Permanent System" or Third System construction program, which aimed to defend America&#39;s most important ports.</p><br>
<p>Then Brevet-Colonel Robert E. Lee designed the hexagonal structure and supervised the construction, which the USA Army Corps of Engineers commenced in 1848. The fort received its name on 8 October 1850. In 1852, Lee left Baltimore to become Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point.</p><br>
<p>In 1853 a lighthouse, now abandoned, was built on the ramparts to aid navigation into Baltimore Harbor. In 1898 a new lighthouse was built, the one still seen today. It was automated in 1920 and discontinued operations before 1945.</p><br>
<p>The original design foresaw the fort being armed with some 225 cannon on three levels. However, in April 1861 at the outbreak of the Civil War, Fort Carroll&#39;s walls were still less than half the planned height of thirty feet. Only five gun platforms were ready and only two were armed with guns. Still, the Army emplaced about thirty cannon and manned the fort throughout the war. In April 1864 torrential rains flooded the fort’s magazines, which led the Army to move all the powder and ammunition to Fort McHenry.</p><br>
<h2>Spanish–American War</h2><br>
<p>When the United States entered into the Spanish–American War in 1898, the Army again manned the fort&#39;s batteries, which were by then completely obsolete. The Army therefore commenced the construction of modern concrete gun emplacements following the designs of the Endicott Board. The Army created three batteries: Battery Towson (two 12" barbette disappearing carriage guns), Battery Heart (two 5-inch M1897 guns on balanced pillar mounts) and Battery Augustin (two 3" balanced pedestal-mount guns).</p><br>
<p>The new batteries were ready by September 1900, well after the end of the war. They received their names on 30 March 1903.</p><br>
<h2>World War I and abandonment</h2><br>
<p>After World War I broke out, in 1917 the Army removed the guns from Battery Heart and in 1918 those from Battery Towson to use elsewhere. By 1920, all guns had been removed from the fort.</p><br>
<p>In March 1921 the Army officially abandoned Fort Carroll and moved whatever military equipment was left to nearby Fort Howard. The War Department declared the island excess property in 1923, but took no immediate steps to sell the land. A variety of proposals for the use of the island were advanced, including a prison, as well as a 1923 plan advanced by Baltimore mayor William Broening to place an electric "Welcome to Baltimore" sign on the island, accompanied by a statue of Lord Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>In World War II the Army used the fort as a firing range. It also served as a checkpoint for vessels.</p><br>
<p>In May 1958, Baltimore attorney Benjamin Eisenberg purchased the island for $10,000, intending to put a casino on the island, but development plans never materialized. The fort is now deserted and the habitat for various animals. It is also a site for occasional urban explorations. In 2013, Preservation Maryland placed Fort Carroll on its list of threatened historic properties. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015.</p><br>
<p>South Andaman Island is the southernmost island of the Great Andaman and is home to the majority of the population of the Andaman Islands.</p><br>
<p>It belongs to the South Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is the location of Port Blair, capital of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>South Andaman Island was struck by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, leading to many deaths on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Great Andaman Chain.</p><br>
<p>Some areas of the island are restricted areas for non-Indians; however, transit permits can be obtained from the Home Ministry.</p><br>
<p>South Andaman is the third largest island in the island group. It is located immediately south of Middle Andaman Island and Baratang, from which it is separated only by a narrow channel, a few hundred meters wide. The island is 83 km long and 28 km at its widest part. Its area is 1,262 km².</p><br>
<p>South Andaman is less mountainous than the more northerly of the Andaman Islands. Koiob reaches a height of 459 m above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, South Andaman Island has the tehsils of Ferrargunj and Port Blair.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Port Blair, the capital of the islands, is located on the southern part of this island.</p><br>
<p>Other big cities are: Bambooflat, Prothrapur, and Garacharma.</p><br>
<p>North Andaman had a population of 209,602 at the 2011 census. The population for the whole of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands was 356,152 in 2001.</p><br>
<p>The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 80.6%.</p><br>
<p>North Andaman Island is the northern island of Great Andaman of the Andaman Islands.</p><br>
<p>It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<p>the island is lying 137 km north from Port Blair.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Great Andaman group and lies north of Middle Andaman Island. many small island groups surround its beaches. The island&#39;s main town is Diglipur.</p><br>
<p>The island previously had an indigenous population of the Great Andamanese, for example, the Bo, but they are no longer present: the island is populated by immigrants from the Indian mainland and their descendants.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to the highest point in the archipelago, Saddle Peak at 738 metres.</p><br>
<p>North Andaman has fairly frequent large earthquakes, and suffered inundation from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The entire island is part of Diglipur Taluk.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There is a small port at Durgapur, 6 km north of Diglipur, with regular services from Port Blair.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>North Andaman is known for its marine life: the island&#39;s main industries are rice- and orange-growing.</p><br>
<p>Little Andaman Island  is the fourth largest of the Andaman Islands of India with an area of 707 km², lying at the southern end of the archipelago. It belongs to the South Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<p>the island is lying 88 km south from Port Blair, the capital of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the nearest airport from where regular flights to Kolkata and Chennai are available.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Little Andaman Group, and is separated from Rutland Archipelago in Great Andaman by the Duncan Passage.</p><br>
<p>Little Andaman Group is counterpart of the Great Andaman island group.</p><br>
<p>The low-lying island has widespread rainforest and several rare species of marine turtle.</p><br>
<p>Little Andaman Island has white sandy beaches and bewitching waterfalls.</p><br>
<p>The Little Andaman Lighthouse (a.k.a. Richardson&#39;s Lighthouse) is located 14 km south by road from Hut Bay port and is situated on the Southern tip of Little Andaman Island.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, Little Andaman Island is part of Little Andaman Tehsil.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to the Onge aboriginal tribe, who call the island Egu Belong, and has been a tribal reserve since 1957. Settlers from erstwhile Bengal and other places also live here. As per the census of 2011, the population was 18,823 in 4,093 households, spread among 18 villages.</p><br>
<p>The main village of Kwate-tu-Kwage is located on Hut Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Hut Bay wharf, a deep water wharf that can be approached through a gap in the coral reef, on the east coast of the island is the entry point of Little Andaman Island. Daily boat services connect Hut Bay wharf with Port Blair in ten hours voyage.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, there are a helicopter services by Pavan Hans Ltd. and a sea plane connection available between Port Blair and Hut Bay. The flight time by helicopter or sea plane is approximately 40 minutes.</p><br>
<p>There is a road alongside the east coastal line and every village is named on the distance / km of the road by the residents.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Little Andaman offers surfing, boating through the creeks, exciting elephant safari, elephant lumbering and elephant calves training.</p><br>
<p>Butler Bay, 14 km from the Hut Bay Jetty, is a beautiful beach suitable for sun basking, coral viewing, surfing etc. Tourist huts are available on the seashore itself flanked by the coconut plantation. Netaji Nagar Beach is 11 km from the Hut Bay Jetty.</p><br>
<p>White Surf waterfall in the midst of the evergreen rainforest is 6.5 km from the Hut Bay Jetty. Whisper Wave waterfall 25 km from the Hut Bay Jetty is also in the midst of the jungle. Journey to this waterfall includes 4 km trekking through the forest. From 4th km Crossing, you need to drive 800 m inside forest, where you will find a small waterfall that looks picturesque. The waterfall is 20–25 m high and there is a small bamboo grass all around.</p><br>
<p>A government organisation, Andaman and Nicobar Islands Forest Plantation Development Corporation Limited (ANIFPDCL), conducts package tour from Port Blair to the Little Andaman Island. It has more than 30 elephants on the Island and organises exciting elephant safari through the jungle near the White Surf waterfall. Well-experienced and tamed elephants are engaged for this purpose. Elephant lumbering activities inside the forest and a camp where elephant calves are trained in lumbering activities can also be seen. ANIFPDCL has built a guest house and tourist huts on the beach.</p><br>
<p>Boating facility is available in the creek near to the Butler Bay beach resort. The northern side of the Butler Bay beach is a popular surfing site. Coral can be seen on the nearby areas. Tourists have to carry necessary scuba equipment with them for this purpose.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands of India, north of Sumatra.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Great Nicobar island was severely affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami with many deaths, and was cut off from all outside contact for more than a day.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island of Sumatra is located 180 km to the south of Great Nicobar. The island covers 921 km&sup2</p><br>
<p>but is sparsely inhabited, with a population of 8067, largely being covered by rainforest and known for its diverse wildlife.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, Indira Point – the southernmost point of India and INS Baaz naval air station near Campbell Bay under the joint-services Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC) of the Indian Armed Forces. It is the southernmost air station of the Indian Armed Forces.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to the Shompen people.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The island has several rivers, including the Alexandra, Amrit Kaur, Dogmar and Galathea. Virtually all rivers flow in a southern or southwesterly direction, which is indicative of the general slope of the terrain across the island. There are undulating hills throughout the island, with the main range running in a north-south orientation. Mount Thullier, which is part of this range, has the highest elevation of any point in the Nicobars, at 642 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Indira Point (6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E) is the southernmost point of the Great Nicobar Island and India itself. Indira Point subsided 4.25 m in the 26 December 2004 tsunami and the lighthouse there was damaged. The lighthouse was subsequently made functional.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>The majority of the island is designated as the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve— home to many unique and endemic species of plants and animals including the Nicobar scrubfowl (Megapodius nicobariensis, a megapode bird), the edible-nest swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus), the Nicobar long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), giant leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Malayan box turtle, Nicobar tree shrew, reticulated python (Python reticulatus) and the giant robber crab (or coconut crab, Birgus latro).</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There is a 915m airstrip at Campbell Bay/Tenlaa on the East coast.</p><br>
<p>Seaport: At least one small shipping dock is located in Campbell Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Indira Point</h2><br>
<p>Indira Point is the name of the southernmost point of Republic of India. It is situated on Great Nicobar Island in the Nicobar Islands, which are located in the eastern Indian Ocean at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E. This is not on the Indian mainland, but within the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The name of the point was changed from Pygmalion Point on 18 October 1985 in commemoration of Indira Gandhi. It was formerly known by various names that include Pygmalion Point, Parsons Point, and for a brief period India Point.</p><br>
<p>It is located 540 km and more than a day’s sea voyage from Port Blair, the capital city and main port of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is approximately 150 km by sea from Sumatra, Indonesia.</p><br>
<h3>Indira Point lighthouse</h3><br>
<p>Indira Point has a 35 m high cast iron (with red and white bands) lighthouse with 16 nautical miles range. The lighthouse has (RACON (Code ‘G’) ii DGPS station) with a 300 mm 4 panel revolving light inside a 2.5 m diameter lantern house (BBT). It is an important landmark on the international shipping lane Colombo-Singapore route via Malacca Strait that passes south of Indira Point. It also has a helipad.</p><br>
<h3>2004 tsunami</h3><br>
<p>The tsunami which resulted from the Indian Ocean earthquake of 2004 inundated much of the area. This partly damaged the lighthouse, which subsided 4.25 m. As a result of this subsidence, the coast retreated and the sea moved permanently inland. The lighthouse has since been repaired.</p><br>
<p>The base of the lighthouse was 5 m above sea level when constructed in 1972. After the tsunami, the sea rose and the base was less than a metre above the sea level, showing over 4 meters of sea floor subsidence. It has been observed that the sea is slowly retreating back to its original position and the subsidence has decreased as the ocean floor slowly bounces back partially, a similar drop and rise due to crustal decompression and re compression was observed in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on Honshu. Indira point was mostly submerged.</p><br>
<p>Oak Ridge Cemetery is a cemetery located in Springfield, Illinois, in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The Lincoln Tomb, which serves as the final resting place of Abraham Lincoln, his wife and all but one of his children, is located at Oak Ridge. A number of other prominent politicians and persons from Illinois are also buried at the cemetery.</p><br>
<p>As a result of Lincoln&#39;s Tomb, Oak Ridge is the second-most visited cemetery in the United States, after Arlington National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Oak Ridge is the 3rd and now only public cemetery in Springfield, the other two cemeteries were the City Cemetery and Hutchinson. Oak Ridge was designed by William Saunders as part of the Rural Cemetery Landscape Lawn Style. The location of the cemetery was carefully selected because of the topography, which included rolling hills which was key in the Rural Cemetery Landscape Lawn Style. The many oak trees in the cemetery is how Oak Ridge got its name. The ridge borders low-lying Spring Creek, creating landscaped topography unusual in central Illinois.</p><br>
<p>The newest section, in the southwest, of Oak Ridge opened after 1945. The design follows the Memorial Park style cemetery in which roadways are wider to accommodate vehicles.</p><br>
<p>The Cemetery has memorials for the Korean War, World War II and the Illinois Vietnam Veterans Memorial. A museum of Central Illinois African-American history is located adjacent to the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>William Henry Bissell</p><br>
<p>Jacob Bunn</p><br>
<p>John Whitfield Bunn</p><br>
<p>Daniel Pope Cook</p><br>
<p>John Cook</p><br>
<p>Shelby Moore Cullom</p><br>
<p>Jesse K. Dubois</p><br>
<p>Ninian Edwards</p><br>
<p>William Lee D. Ewing</p><br>
<p>William Herndon</p><br>
<p>Elijah Iles</p><br>
<p>William Jayne</p><br>
<p>John L. Lewis</p><br>
<p>Abraham Lincoln – sixteenth President of the United States during the Civil War</p><br>
<p>Mary Todd Lincoln – Abraham&#39;s wife</p><br>
<p>Fleetwood Lindley – the last person to have looked upon Lincoln&#39;s face in September 1901</p><br>
<p>Vachel Lindsay</p><br>
<p>John Alexander McClernand</p><br>
<p>Alfred Orendorff</p><br>
<p>John Carroll Power – first custodian of Lincoln&#39;s Tomb</p><br>
<p>Alexander Starne – Illinois Secretary of State and Illinois Treasurer</p><br>
<p>John T. Stuart – USA Congressman, lawyer, law partner of Abraham Lincoln</p><br>
<p>John Riley Tanner</p><br>
<p>Arthur Harrison Wilson (Medal of Honor)</p><br>
<p>Fort Meigs was a United States fortification along the Maumee River in Ohio during the War of 1812. The British army, supported by Tecumseh&#39;s Confederacy, failed to capture the fort during the Siege of Fort Meigs. It is named in honor of Ohio governor Return J. Meigs, Jr., for his support in providing General William Henry Harrison with militia and supplies for the line of forts along the Old Northwest frontier.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the fort started in February 1813 by soldiers under the command of General William Henry Harrison (future president) at a site where present-day Perrysburg, Ohio developed. It was to provide a supply depot and staging point for US military operations in Canada that would also command the rapids of the Maumee River. The remnants of the British Fort Miami were across the river downstream, to the northeast. The winter climate was harsh, and the landscape unforgiving. A USA sentry froze to death during his two hours of guard duty.</p><br>
<p>The First Siege: On May 1, 1813, British allied forces, under General Henry Proctor and Chief Tecumseh, opened a bombardment of the fort, which had mustered 1,200 regulars and militia, and laid siege. Reinforcements reached the fort on May 4, increasing its garrison to 2,800. Early on the morning of May 5, a detachment from Clays brigade under Colonel William Dudley landed from boats on the north bank of the river, stormed the British batteries on the north bank and spiked the guns. Coming under fire from Indians in the woods, part of the Kentuckian force pursued Tecumsehs men, who led them deeper into the forest. In the woods, the disorganized Kentuckians suffered heavy casualties in confused fighting. Nearly 550 were captured, and of Dudleys 866 officers and men, only 150 returned to the fort. This became known as "Dudleys Massacre" or "Dudley&#39;s Defeat".</p><br>
<p>The Shawnee, Delaware (Lenape) and other Native American warriors attacked any wood-gathering parties sent out from the fort. Harrison held out against the British by using a pair of 14-foot high embankments ("traverses") thrown up inside the walls along the length of the interior to absorb the incoming British shells. Proctor abandoned the siege on May 9, 1813 and retreated to Detroit.</p><br>
<p>The Second Siege: Having mobilized the garrison into an army, Harrison left General Green Clay in command of the fort, much reduced in size from its original layout. In July 1813, the British attempted to appease their allies by again besieging Fort Meigs. The Indians staged a mock battle to lure the garrison out. The Americans, however, saw through the ploy. After the failed siege attempt, the British moved on to Fort Stephenson, where Fremont, Ohio stands today. That attack also failed, causing heavy British losses and forcing their retreat to Canada. Once the British had retreated from the area for good, General Harrison ordered Fort Meigs dismantled.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, brothers Timothy and Thomas Hayes became the owners of the land on which the fort had stood and were instrumental in preserving it in memory and honor of the men who fought the battles. The heirs of the Hayes brothers sold the property to the state in 1907. On September 1, 1908, the large obelisk monument that can be seen from outside the fort was dedicated by a local veteran of the Civil War to the fallen soldiers of Fort Meigs. The Ohio Historical Society reconstructed the fort in the late 1960s, and its museum, featuring numerous artifacts uncovered during excavation in connection with the rebuilding, opened in 1974. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial</h2><br>
<p>Today, Fort Meigs is the site of an Ohio State Memorial in Perrysburg, Ohio. The 65-acre (263,000 m²) park includes the full-size 10-acre replica of the 1813 fort. Between 2000 and 2003 its wooden palisades were rebuilt with fresh timbers, the seven blockhouses were repaired, and exhibits or facilities built inside four of them. The $6.2 million renovation project also saw the museum replaced by a Museum and Education Center of 14,000 square feet that features 3,000 square feet of exhibits on Ohios role in the War of 1812, classrooms for student and adult workshops, and office and maintenance areas. The museum exhibit "Legacy of Freedom: Fort Meigs and the War of 1812" focuses on the themes of era, conflict, understanding and remembrance. These sections place the War of 1812 into the context of the times and explain Fort Meigs role in the conflict.</p><br>
<p>The original grand traverse is preserved within the interior of the fort, although erosion has reduced it from its original 14-foot height, and a reverse traverse was constructed to the original specifications by the OHS. Located at the corner of a nearby cemetery are the remains of an original mortar position laid by the British for use during the siege.</p><br>
<h2>Re-enactments</h2><br>
<p>Several re-enactments take place at Fort Meigs each year. They include:</p><br>
<p>First Siege, a battle re-enactment portraying the events of the siege of Fort Meigs in May 1813, complete with American and British infantry and artillery. This event is held on Memorial Day weekend and is followed on Monday by a ceremony commemorating the fallen soldiers.</p><br>
<p>Muster on the Maumee, a "timeline event" held at the fort on Father&#39;s Day weekend, includes military re-enactors from ancient Roman soldiers to the modern-era soldier.</p><br>
<p>Independence Day, a re-enactment portraying the events on the Fourth of July in 1813. It includes toasts and an 18-gun salute.</p><br>
<p>Garrison Ghost Walk, an event held on the last two weekends in October; a re-enactor guides visitors through the dark fort to tell ghost stories.</p><br>
<p>Shiveluch  is the northernmost active volcano in Kamchatka Krai, Russia. It and Karymsky are Kamchatka&#39;s largest and most active volcanoes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Shiveluch began forming about 60,000 to 70,000 years ago, and it has had at least 60 large eruptions during the Holocene. During this era, the most intense period of volcanism — including frequent large and moderate eruptions — occurred around 6500–6400 BC, 2250–2000 BC, and AD 50–650. This coincides with the peak of activity in other Kamchatka volcanoes. The current active period started around 900 BC. Since then, the large and moderate eruptions has been following each other in 50 to 400 year-long intervals. Catastrophic eruptions took place in 1854 and 1956, when a large part of the lava dome collapsed and created a devastating debris avalanche.</p><br>
<p>The most recent eruption of Young Shiveluch started on August 15, 1999, and continues. On February 27, 2015 Shiveluch erupted shooting ash into the atmosphere about 30,000 feet crossing the Bering sea and into Alaska.</p><br>
<h2>Characteristics</h2><br>
<p>Shiveluch belongs to the Kliuchevskaya volcano group. There are three elements of the volcano: the stratovolcano Old Shiveluch (Старый Шивелуч); an ancient caldera; and the active Young Shiveluch (Молодой Шивелуч), with an elevation of about 2,800 metres (9,186 ft). Shiveluch is one of Kamchatka&#39;s largest and most active volcanic structures.</p><br>
<p>The nearest settlement from the volcano is Klyuchi, situated 50 km from the mountain. The settlement is small enough to evacuate rapidly in case of a major eruption.</p><br>
<p>Rocheport, also known as Rocheport Historic District, is a historic district in Rocheport, Missouri. It dates from 1830.</p><br>
<p>Rocheport was a trading post for both settlers and Native Americans. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead an expedition to explore the western territories. On June 7, 1804, their journey led them to the convergence of the Missouri River and Moniteau Creek near the future settlement of Rocheport. Clark noted the features of the land, flora, fauna and native pictographs on the bluffs in his journal. Rocheport became a permanent settlement in the early 19th century.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Ponmudi   is a hill station in the Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala in India. It is located 55.2 km north-east of Trivandrum City at an altitude of 1100 m. Ponmudi  peak is a part of the Western Ghats mountain range that runs parallel to the Arabian Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Ponmudi is connected to Trivandrum by a two lane highway (SH2 & SH 45). The last 18km starting from Anapara offers spectacular and scenic views, as it winds through the mountains and tea gardens. The travel along this stretch provides a thrilling experience as drivers and riders have to navigate 22 Hairpin turns. Ponmudi is also a popular spot for backpacking and trekking. The climate is pleasant year-round.</p><br>
<p>Other attractions near Ponmudi include Golden Valley and a number of rivulets and rapids, some even across the road. The lush forest area has tropical vegetation. A variety of wildlife inhabit the hills. The Golden Valley offers vistas of the hills and access to the Kallar River. Flowing though a wilderness area, it has rounded pebbles, cool water, fish, and lush green trees.</p><br>
<p>Some notable tourist attractions located in Ponmudi are Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Echo Point and various trekking spots. Mist-laden valleys, especially Golden Valley near Kallar River, also draw tourists. Travelers can find a deer park and wood and stone cottages coloured in bright hues while visiting here.Located about 1.5 km from the hill station, is the Ponmudi Falls. Around 3 km from the Ponmudi Resort, is the popular Deer Park. The Meenmutty Falls, another popular attraction of the region, is about 3 km from the Kallar Main Road. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, located on the outskirts of Ponmudi, is a preserve spread across 53 km and accommodates a variety of wild animals and birds like Asian elephants, sambar, leopards, lion-tailed macaques, Malabar grey hornbills, etc.</p><br>
<p>Another main attraction in the region is Agasthyarkoodam, one of the highest peaks in the Western Ghats, with the highest peak at 1868 m. This peak is famous for its wilderness, and can be accessed only with the Forest Department&#39;s permission. Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve is another popular attraction covering Neyyar, Peppara, Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and divisions of Achencoil, Thenmala, Konni, Punalur, and Thiruvananthapuram</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The landscape of Ponmudi is an interspersing of valleys and hills with forestland and plantations. Ponmudi is having an extensive importance of biodiversity, which plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of the area.</p><br>
<p>Ponmudi is host to 283 species of birds, many of which are endangered and threatened. Birds endemic to this region include the painted bush quail, the Malabar grey hornbill, the Wayanad laughing thrush, the broad-tailed grass bird and the Nilgiri pipit. The grasslands of Ponmudi are the breeding grounds of the broad-tailed grass bird, a threatened species. "Fifty-nine per cent of the 483 bird species in Kerala are found at Ponmudi. Of the 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats, 15 are at Ponmudi. Of the 332 species of butterflies in the Western Ghats, 195 are found here. Of the 37 butterfly species endemic to the Ghats, 24 are found at Ponmudi. The spot puffin, a rare butterfly, has been sighted at the Kulachikarai-Panayam-Merchiston area where ISRO&#39;s land comes. Similarly, Ponmudi is also host to many species of reptiles and amphibians, including the highly endangered Travancore tortoise, the Malabar Gliding Frog and the Malabar tree toad. Nilgiri tahr is also found in Ponmudi hill top.</p><br>
<h2>Kallar and Menmutty Falls</h2><br>
<p>Kallar situated en route to the popular hill station of Ponmudi, Kallar gets its name from the River Kallar, which flows through the region. Kallu means stone and Aru means river, hence the name Kallar. The river is well known for its abundance of attractive, round-shaped boulders and pebbles, especially in the upper reaches and middle portion of its course. Here one can take a dip in the crystal clear waters to cool off, and also watch the many rapids and small pools that dot a good part of the river in this area.</p><br>
<p>Meenmutty Falls, Thiruvananthapuram is one of the main attraction located near by Ponmudi hills and is around 45 km from Thiruvananthapuram city.This waterfall is about 3 km away from the Kallar-Ponmudi road. The main attractions are water falls and the small natural pools and rocks located beside the way to the water fall. In order to reach the place, one has to take a long trek that passes through dense forests, upon taking special permission from the Forest Department. A guide will be sent along with tourist groups to the falls. Facilities for trekking are easily provided at Kallar Vana Samrakshana Samithi, which is a forest protection group at Kallar.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Road transport</h3><br>
<p>Ponmudi hill station is well connected to Thiruvananthapuram and Kerala by a wide network of roads. Buses ply from the main bus stand in Trivandrum and Nedumangad at periodic intervals. Taxis are available from the Central Station at Trivandrum and Airport.</p><br>
<h3>Rail</h3><br>
<p>Nearest railway station is Thiruvananthapuram Central railway station.</p><br>
<h3>Air</h3><br>
<p>Nearest airport is Thiruvananthapuram International Airport.</p><br>
<p>The Dinosaur Cove in Victoria, Australia is a fossil-bearing site in the south-east of the continent where the Otway Ranges meet the sea to the west of Cape Otway, adjacent to Great Otway National Park . The inaccessible ocean-front cliffs include fossil-bearing strata that date back to about 106 million years ago and has provided discoveries important in the research of the natural history of dinosaurs in Australia and the Southern Hemisphere as a whole.</p><br>
<h2>Geological time-line</h2><br>
<p>During the Early Cretaceous the location was a flood plain within a great rift valley that formed as Australia started to separate northward from Antarctica. Sand, mud and silt deposits covered and sometimes preserved the remains of dead animals and plants. As the rift valley sank, the deposits were overlaid by sediment, which turned to rock under pressure. In the last 30 million years the sediments have been uplifted to form the Otway Ranges and Strzelecki Ranges, bringing them near the surface again.</p><br>
<p>The richest find of petrified dinosaur bones is confined to narrow thin (up to 0.3 m) layers, most likely ancient stream beds serving as repositories of the bones of smaller animals.</p><br>
<h3>History of discovery</h3><br>
<p>In 1903, geologist William Hamilton Ferguson was mapping the rocky coastal outcrops a few kilometres west of Inverloch and uncovered the first dinosaur fossil ever discovered in Australia. 75 years later, the exploration and excavation of the Dinosaur Cove site was conducted by teams of volunteers overseen by Thomas H. Rich and Patricia Rich. The dinosaur taxa, Leaellynasaura amicagraphica and Timimus hermani, are named for the children of the Riches&#39;, Tim and Leaellyn. Heavy mining equipment and dynamite was used to blast away overlying strata to uncover the fossiliferous rock layers in the cliff face.</p><br>
<p>Over geological time since, the rock was pushed so deep that heat and pressure hardened it much, before it came again to the surface. As a result, a common way to look for fossils in it was to break each lump with a sledgehammer, and after each blow to examine all new broken surfaces for cross-sections of bone. Any pieces that showed bone were sent to the laboratory to extract the bone by careful preparation.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s and 90s Dinosaur Cove yielded hypsilophodontid-like dinosaurs as Leaellynasaura amicagraphica and Atlascopcosaurus loadsi, and a Coelurosaur, as well as fragments of what may be a caenagnathid (relatives of the Oviraptors). One fossil from this diverse taxa, collectively called the "polar dinosaurs of Australia", has been interpreted as showing possible adaptations to vision in low light conditions and possibly were warm-blooded; this has been suggested as an explanation for how some of these dinosaurs foraged for food during the polar winter months. It is worth noting that although these dinosaurs lived at polar latitudes, the Cretaceous climate was significantly milder than today, so temperatures within the Antarctic and Arctic Circles were vastly different from the climate at these latitudes today, because the lopsided arrangements of the continents made sea currents and monsoon winds blow across the polar areas and not round and round them, and so stopped cold pools from developing around the poles.</p><br>
<p>An astragalus bone of an ancient relative of Allosaurus was discovered at the site, making it the first discovery in the southern hemisphere.</p><br>
<p>Petalidi  is a village and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Messini, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 104.970 km. Petalidi is situated on the western shore of the Messenian Gulf, 13 km southwest of Messini, 18 km southwest of Kalamata and 21 km east of Pylos. The road Greek National Road 82  passes through the north of the municipal unit.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Petalidi is subdivided into the following communities (2011 population in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Achladochori (pop: 334)</p><br>
<p>Daras (pop: 293)</p><br>
<p>Drosia (pop: 75)</p><br>
<p>Kalochori (pp: 133)</p><br>
<p>Karpofora (pop: 176)</p><br>
<p>Kastania (pop: 44)</p><br>
<p>Kokkino (pop: 83)</p><br>
<p>Lykissa (pop: 71)</p><br>
<p>Mathia (pop: 60)</p><br>
<p>Neromylos (pop: 324)</p><br>
<p>Paniperi (pop: 380)</p><br>
<p>Petalidi (pop: 1,244)</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>Nancowry  is an island in the central part of the Nicobar Islands chain, located in the northeast Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1755, the government of Denmark formally claimed sovereignty over Nicobars, under the name of Frederiksøerne (Frederik Islands) and encouraged a mission established by the Moravian Brethren of Herrnhut.</p><br>
<p>Along with Kamorta Island, which lies just to the north, Nancowry Island forms the "magnificent land-locked" Nancowry Harbour, used by European sailors since at least the 17th century and described as "one of the safest natural harbours in the world" (). The harbour was apparently used as a base for piracy; in 1868, the British Navy entered the harbour in some force, destroying suspected pirate ships.</p><br>
<h3>2004 tsunami</h3><br>
<p>The island, like many others in the Nicobar and Andaman islands, was severely affected by tsunamis generated by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. According to reports from the Andaman and Nicobar Inspector General of Police, S.B. Deol, the Nancowry group of islands were among the worst-hit islands in the chain, with thousands missing and presumed dead. Post-tsunami satellite photos, and government situation reports indicate that while portions of Nancowry Island were affected, the adjoining islands of Katchall and Kamorta were more severely overrun. As of January 18, 2005, the government reported only 1 dead and 3 missing from Nancowry island, but 51 dead and 387 missing from Kamorta, and 345 dead and 4310 missing from Katchall.</p><br>
<h2>Demography</h2><br>
<p>As of the 2011 Indian census, there are 1019 persons living on Nancowry island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Nancowry Island has an area of 47 km², and located 160 km south-southeast of Car Nicobar, the northernmost Nicobar island. Nancowry, like the Nicobar islands generally, is under the sovereignty of the nation of India. It is also part of the Nicobar and Andaman Tribal Reserve Area, which bars non-native people from visiting or conducting business on the island without permission in hopes of preserving the threatened native communities that live there.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the township of Nancowry of Nancowry tehsil.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Trinket Island  is one of the 24 islands that make up the Nicobar Islands chain, located in the northeast Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. It is located east of Kamorta island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Trinket has an area of 12.25 km², and a flat, low topography. Regional monsoons bring rains of 3,000 mm to 3,800 mm yearly.</p><br>
<p>The island is surrounded by shallow waters and coral reefs, which allow it to be approached by boat only during high tide.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>From 1869 until 1947 Trinket was part of Britain&#39;s Indian colonies. In 1947 it became part of the Dominion of India, and since 1950 of the Republic of India. Trinket is part of the Kamorta Tehsil, Nancowry subdivision of the Nicobars District, and part of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands state.</p><br>
<p>Since 1956 the Government of India has afforded protection to the native Nicobarese through a special legislation, the Andaman and Nicobar Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Regulation, which regulated entry to the islands.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Two early censuses of the island were conducted by the British administration in 1883 and 1901. The 1883 census revealed a population of 85 persons living in eight villages. The 1901 census indicated an estimated population of 102 persons, spread between four and six villages, ruled by two chiefs.</p><br>
<p>As of 2001, the Indian census had catalogued 436 persons living on Trinket in four villages: Trinket (population 244), Safebalu (pop. 127), Tapiang (pop. 42) and Hockcook (pop. 23). Like most other islands in the Nicobar district, Trinket&#39;s population was almost exclusively ethnic Nicobarese.</p><br>
<p>Although, the 2011 Census of India indicated that the island had become uninhabited following the 2004 tsunami disaster, as of the end of 2012 the island appeared to have been repopulated by a pair of returnees, living at the site of what had been Trinket village.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>From the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries, trade with Trinket, as with the rest of the Nicobar Islands, was dominated by Indian, Arab, and European merchant fleets.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the island&#39;s populace was dependent on the outside world for many goods, including foodstuffs. Until the 1950s they exported whole coconuts and other forest products, but after the 1950s local production shifted toward exports of processed coconut, in the form of copra. Those products were traded for imports such as rice, sugar, and clothes, which were used to supplement the local subsistence economy based on hunting and gathering, fishing, pig and chicken rearing, and household gardens.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Trinket was officially made subject to the British Empire in 1869. The island became part of sovereign India following Indian independence in 1947.</p><br>
<h3>Effects of 2004 earthquake and tsunami</h3><br>
<h4>Physical effects</h4><br>
<p>Like the other Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Trinket was devastated by tsunamis generated by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The island, which has a low and flat topography, was severely affected by the powerful waves and by earthquake-caused subduction of 1.5m to 1.75 m (4 ft 11 in to 5 ft 9 in), suffering a reduction of its surface area from 14.6 km² down to 12.25 km². Initial reports that the island had been split apart were later confirmed by satellite imagery and onsite surveys.</p><br>
<h4>Human toll</h4><br>
<p>On Trinket, the tsunami left 91 dead or disappeared</p><br>
<h3>Repopulation of the island</h3><br>
<p>By the end of 2012, only two people, both returnees, were reported to be living permanently on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Hard Knott is a fell in the English Lake District, at the head of Eskdale.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The headwaters of the River Esk and the Duddon are separated by a ridge falling south west from the summit of Crinkle Crags. This line of high ground continues over many twists and turns for 15 mi, finally meeting the sea on the slopes of Black Combe. From Crinkle Crags the first fell on this ridge is Hard Knott, followed by Harter Fell and Green Crag. Alfred Wainwright did not include the remainder of the ridge in his influential ‘’Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells’’, but later guidebook writers have disagreed, adding Great Worm Crag, Yoadcastle, Whitfell, Buck Barrow, Black Combe and the low hills around Devoke Water to their main volumes. Wainwright himself later relented and included these lesser hills in a supplementary volume, The Outlying Fells of Lakeland.</p><br>
<p>From the main ridge of Crinkle Crags a low saddle juts out to the west in the vicinity of the southernmost Crinkle. This separates the basin of upper Eskdale from the head of the small marshy valley of Moasdale, down which the Moasdale Beck flows south to join the River Duddon at Cockley Beck. To the west of the saddle the ridge turns southward and gains height, rising over a series of rocky knolls to the summit of Hard Knott. The Moasdale side has gentle gradients but the western flanks above the Esk are fringed with crags. One feature on this side is the Eskdale Needle, (also known as The Steeple) a finger of rock detached from the main face. As the Esk and Moasdale Becks diverge, the girth of the fell increases, until a pair of side valleys intrude to nip off its southward progress. These streams, both named Hard Knott Gill, fall from either side of Hardknott Pass, beyond which the ridge climbs again over a series of crags toward Harter Fell.</p><br>
<p>The Hardknott Pass joins Eskdale with the Duddon Valley. There is a steep single-track road over the pass with gradients of up to 30% (1 in 3), reaching a maximum height of 393 m. The Hardknott Roman Fort stands at a height of about 200 m on the lower slopes of the western ridge as it descends into Eskdale. A Roman road from Ravenglass to Ambleside once crossed the pass, although by a slightly different route.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Rhyolitic lava-like tuff of the Bad Step Tuff forms the summit rocks with the dacitic lapilli-tuffs of the Lincomb Tarns Formation to the north west. Border end shows outcropping plagioclase-phyric andesite lavas of the Birker Fell Formation.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>Hard Knott reaches a height of 549 metres (1,803 feet), the summit knoll bearing a cairn. There are other named tops on the ridge in addition to the summit, with Yew Bank to the north and Border End to the south. Hard Knott is famous for its superb view of the Scafell massif to the north, while Harter Fell dominates the vista to the south. For a fabulous view of Eskdale it is recommended that the walker visits Border End half a mile to the south of the main summit.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>The fell is usually climbed from the top of the Hardknott Pass where there are several parking spaces. It is also possible to begin the ascent from the foot of the pass in Eskdale, although this will triple the length of the walk and the height gained. However, the best plan is probably to climb Hard Knott in conjunction with the neighbouring fell of Harter Fell making a horseshoe walk starting and finishing in Eskdale. From the top of the pass it is a short ascent to the fell summit following an electric fence that skirts to the right of the dangerous looking Raven Crag and takes the walker to the summit in a short time. Other possible routes include a pathless ascent from the Esk via The Steeple, a circuitous walk via the head of Moasdale and an ascent of the eastern flanks via Dod Pike.</p><br>
<p>Middle Andaman Island is an island of the Andaman Islands. It belongs to the North and Middle Andaman administrative district, part of the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island belongs to the Great Andaman Chain and is located 73 km north from Port Blair.</p><br>
<p>It is the central island of the Great Andaman archipelago of India, with a total area of 1,536 km².</p><br>
<p>Middle Andaman is separated from North Andaman Island by Austen Strait, and from Baratang Island at the south by Homfray&#39;s Strait, both shallow and narrow channels, a few hundred metres wide; and from Interview Island at its west by the navigable Interview Passage.</p><br>
<p>The island&#39;s coastline was inundated by the tsunami resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake (26th Dec), though the effect was far less severe when compared with other Islands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Politically, Middle Andaman Island, is part of Mayabunder and Rangat Tehsils.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Population of Middle Andaman consists of Bengali, Tamil and Keralite settlers. The island is also home to many of the indigenous Jarawa people. The main occupation of the inhabitants is farming and Agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Middle Andaman&#39;s main towns (Metro population in brackets) are Rangat (10,000), Mayabunder (5,565), Bakultala (4,454), Nimbutala (3,063), and Kadamtala (3,008).</p><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census of India, the Island has x households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. the literacy rate of population excluding children aged 6 and below) is 76%.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The island hosts immaculate waterfalls, and pretty beaches.</p><br>
<p>Adventurous fun such as Island camping, trekking, Scuba diving, snorkeling, and other exciting water sports offer you chance to indulge in real pleasure.</p><br>
<p>Harter Fell is a mountain in the western part of the English Lake District, located between the Eskdale and Duddon valleys. Its height is 649 m . There are several walking routes to the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The headwaters of the Esk and Duddon are separated by a ridge falling south west from the summit of Crinkle Crags. This line of high ground continues over many twists and turns for 15 miles, finally meeting the sea on the slopes of Black Combe. From Crinkle Crags the first fells on this ridge are Hard Knott and Harter Fell, separated by Hardknott Pass. From Harter Fell the ridge continues over Green Crag, Great Worm Crag, Yoadcastle, Whitfell, Buck Barrow and Black Combe. Alfred Wainwright considered the latter hills unworthy of inclusion in his influential Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, stating that "south and west from Green Crag the scenery quickly deteriorates. This summit has therefore been taken as the boundary of fellwalking country." Later guidebook writers have disagreed, adding and the remainder of the range to their main volumes. Wainwright himself later relented and included these lesser hills in a supplementary volume, The Outlying Fells of Lakeland.</p><br>
<p>From the top of the pass a complex series of grassy knolls firms up into a ridge bearing south westward. This steps upward, first over Horsehow Crags and then the impressive gable-end of Demming Crag, before reaching the summit area. Further outcropping rock occurs on all sides, although little of it is of interest to climbers. Notable features are Maiden Castle, Brandy Crag and Mart Crag to the south east and Kepple Crag to the south. To the southwest is a broad and marshy saddle leading onto Green Crag and the moorlands of Birker Fell, the ongoing watershed. The southern and eastern flanks are heavily forested with conifers, legions of Forestry Commission trees sweeping down into the Duddon valley.</p><br>
<p>Harter Fell appears in most views as a conical hill, unsurprising given its broadly circular contours. Wainwright paid it perhaps the ultimate accolade, stating that "Not many fells can be described as beautiful, but the word fits Harter Fell, especially so when viewed from Eskdale.".</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit area bears three rocky tors, the middle one of which is the highest. An Ordnance Survey triangulation column stands on the western outcrop. From its summit each of the ring of fells known as the Eskdale Horseshoe can be clearly seen: Sca Fell, Scafell Pike, Broad Crag, Great End, Esk Pike, Bow Fell and Crinkle Crags. To the south are the sands of the Duddon estuary and Morecambe Bay, and to the west the Irish Sea and Isle of Man.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Harter Fell offers excellent insights into the structure and composition of the Birker Fell formation of the Ordovician Borrowdale Volcanic Group. The fell is dominantly composed of composite andesite lava flows, with autobrecciated upper surfaces developed in some locations. These are often seen in the field as flat surfaces above steep crags, the crags themselves being formed due to the more crystalline, lower portions of each flow. The dip slope on these flows (~24° WSW) suggests that the formation is in nearly the same orientation now as when it formed. The summit of the fell is composed of one such lava flow, but only a few metres down slope the underlying lava flow is a portion of the Great Whinscale Dacite. This local marker unit conformably overlies an andesitic lapilli tuff and the Little Stand Tuff, a nodular rhyolitic ignimbrite. Below these distinctive rock units the andesite lava flows are seen again. On the northern side of the fell, at approximately 520 - 540 m elevation, a volcaniclastic sandstone unit is intercalated between the flows. Also on the northern slopes of the fell, and lower still at between 450 - 500 m, the lava flows switch to dacitic composition, with distinctive euhedral plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts (1 - 4 mm). The southern slopes of the fell again display the Great Whinscale dacite-tuff sequence, owing to extensive faulting. The very lowest slopes of the fell again revert to andesitic lava flows. In the north-western corner, near the Spothow Gill, a small vein of copper mineralisation has been worked out, and some of the evidence of this Victorian-era mining activity can still be seen.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>From Eskdale Harter Fell can be climbed from Jubilee Bridge in the west or from the summit of Hardknott Pass in the east. From the Duddon, walkers can make use of the car parking at Birks Bridge. This provides a reasonably direct line from the west. An alternative is to start from Fickle Steps and circuit clockwise around the fell to join the path from Jubilee Bridge. Harter Fell forms the final challenge in the Woolpack walk when tackled in its usual direction.</p><br>
<p>Great Andaman is the main archipelago of the Andaman Islands of India. It comprises seven major islands. From north to south, these are North Andaman, Interview Island, Middle Andaman, Long Island, Baratang Island, South Andaman, and Rutland Island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>South, Middle and North islands are the largest of the entire island group. The islands&#39; capital, Port Blair, is located on South Andaman.</p><br>
<p>Great Andaman group is often considered the counterpart to Little Andaman group, another group of islands in the Andaman&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>The Andaman islands consist of five groups:</p><br>
<p>Great Andaman</p><br>
<p>Little Andaman</p><br>
<p>Ritchie&#39;s Archipelago</p><br>
<p>East Volcano Islands</p><br>
<p>Narrow creeks split Great Andaman into North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman and the other major islands. All of these islands are in the form of peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Each island has a central highland surrounded by bordering flat lands sloping in all directions and finally merged into coastal tracts.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>According to the 2011 census of India, the archipelago had 315,530 inhabitants.</p><br>
